BIOL 102 General Zoology Unit 1A-B Introduction PDF

# BIOL 102 General Zoology ## Unit 1A-B Introduction * **Photo:** An eyespot on a peacock's tail. ## Biology as a Science * Comes from the Latin words: * **biology** - bios (life) + logos (study). * Deals with the investigation of the origin, history, structure, function, identification, an...

# BIOL 102 General Zoology ## Unit 1A-B Introduction * **Photo:** An eyespot on a peacock's tail. ## Biology as a Science * Comes from the Latin words: * **biology** - bios (life) + logos (study). * Deals with the investigation of the origin, history, structure, function, identification, and significance of living things & their interactions with the environment. ## Importance of Biology * The study of biology is key to understanding: * How cells and organisms work. * How your own body works. * How different living things use different ways to do the same things (e.g., making energy, eating, and moving). * How organisms overcome disease and infection. * How to investigate, learn new facts, study and search for information, and how to think more critically. So that we can learn more about our natural environment and how our bodies work. * Discoveries in Biology have also contributed to applied fields such as medicine and bioengineering. * **Bioengineering** - could help alleviate world hunger by developing new corn varieties, genetically enhanced to resist pests and droughts. ## Historical Background of Biology ### William Harvey (1628) * English physician who first recognized the full circulation of blood in the human body. * This landmark in medical history marked the beginning of modern physiology. ### Robert Hooke (1665) * First used the word **cell** after observing cork cells and seeing cell walls of dead plant cells from bark- "row of empty boxes." * Studied microscopic fossils and was an early proponent of evolution. * **Hooke's microscope was not as good as some (especially those of Leeuwenhoek), but he was still able to make many observations and detailed drawings.** * **Photo:** A diagram of Robert Hooke's microscope with labels of its parts, and a microscopic image of a cork cell. ### Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674) * Considered to be the first microbiologist and known as the father of Microbiology. * Studied microscopy and made improvements to the microscope. * Discovered protists and bacteria using self-made microscopes. * **Images he drew of bacteria in plaque removed from his teeth. These are the first known observations of bacteria. He called them "animalcules."** * **Photo:** A diagram of Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope, and his drawings of bacteria. ### Theodor Schwann (1838) * Demonstrated that all animal tissues are made up of cells. * Concluded that all tissues are made up of cells. ### Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881) * Studied cells as the common element among plants and animals. ### Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) * Showed that the origin of cells are pre-existing cells. * **Schwann, Schleiden, & Virchow together laid the foundations and helped develop cell theory.** * **Photo:** Images of Theodor Schwann, Matthias Jakob Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. ### Charles Darwin * An English naturalist who proposed how evolution works by natural selection. * Collected a lot of evidence to support his ideas (Galapagos islands). * **Natural Selection** - Individuals better adapted to the environment are able to survive & reproduce - "Survival of the fittest". ### Alfred Russel Wallace * A British naturalist who independently conceived the theory of evolution by natural selection. * **After several years, many important discoveries and inventions on physiology and molecular biology followed:** ### Louis Pasteur (1865) * Proved that germs cause disease. * Developed vaccines for anthrax and rabies. * Created the process of pasteurization. * Contributed to the principles of vaccination and microbial fermentation. ### Rosalind Franklin * Her X-ray diffraction studies on DNA was instrumental to the discovery of the DNA structure by Watson and Crick. ### Francis Crick & James D. Watson (1953) * Discovered the double-helix structure of the DNA with the help of the X-ray diffraction image of DNA by Rosalind Franklin. * **Photo** An image of Rosalind Franklin. * **Photo** An image of Francis Crick and James D. Watson. ## Branches of Science * **Natural Science** deals with the study of nature. It is subdivided into two major fields: * **A. Physical Science** - is the study of non-living matter. * 1. Physics - study of matter & its behavior. * 2. Chemistry - study of matter, its composition, & the changes that it undergoes. * 3. Meteorology - study of atmospheric condition. * 4. Volcanology - study of volcanoes & their activity. * 5. Mineralogy - study of minerals, their nature, properties, and distribution. * 6. Astronomy - study of heavenly bodies. * 7. Geology - study of the earth's surface, rocks, and minerals. * **B. Biological Science** - is the science of life. * 1. **Botany** - the study of plants. * 2. **Zoology** - the study of animals. * **Further subdivided into:** * a.) Morphology * b.) Anatomy * c.) Physiology * d.) Cytology * e.) Histology * f.) Embryology * g.) Taxonomy - study of the classification and naming of plants and animals. * h.) Genetics - study of heredity, or how an organism's characteristics are transmitted from parent to offspring. * i.) Evolution - study of the origin and differentiation of different kinds of organisms. * j.) Paleontology - study of fossils of living things and their distribution in time. * k.) Microbiology - study of microorganisms * i. Bacteriology - study of bacteria. * ii. Virology - study of viruses. * iii. Protozoology - study of protozoans or one-celled organism. * l.) Biochemistry - study the chemistry of living things and their distribution in time. * **Photo:** A diagram of the branches of natural science. ## The Scientific Method * At the heart of science is inquiry. Scientists use a process of inquiry known as the scientific method. ### Steps: 1. **Observation & Recognition of the Problem:** * Observation using the senses and the use of tools to extend these senses. * Through observation, a problem may be identified. 2. **Data Gathering:** * Recorded observations are data. They can be quantitative or qualitative. * Collection of data through: * a. Interview * b. Readings * c. Surveys * d. Consultation to experts 3. **Forming Hypothesis:** * An explanation based on observations and assumptions. * Must be testable. 4. **Testing of Hypothesis/Experimentation:** * A set-up/special procedure which will support or reject the hypothesis. * Make observations and record data. * **Groups:** * **Experimental Group** - receives treatment in the presence of a variable. * **Control Group** - doesn't receive treatment. 5. **Analysis and Interpretation of Results:** * Use of statistics to best interpret the data. * Through data visualizations e.g., graphs & tables. * Trends are observed and meaningful interpretations from the data are made. 6. **Generalization/Conclusion:** * Interpreted data leads to conclusions and generalizations through inductive reasoning. * Supported by a large number of experiments, a theory may be formulated. * A theory is a structured explanation backed by a large body of evidence and can be used to make predictions. * **Photo:** A diagram of the scientific method steps. ## Flexibility of the Scientific Method * Although the scientific method is an idealized systematic approach, the sequence of steps aren't usually rigidly adhered to. * In reality, the process of science is not linear. * The scientific method is an iterative process. Steps may be backtracked or repeated. * Some observations remain too puzzling to prompt well-defined questions until further study provides a new context. * **Photo:** A realistic, non-linear model of the scientific process. ## Scope of Science * Involves the continuous testing of rules and principles by the collection of new facts. * If rules are not testable or if no rules are used, it is not science. ## Limits of Science * Cannot draw conclusions about supernatural phenomena. * Cannot make aesthetic/value judgments. * Cannot make moral judgments. * Science cannot make these judgments, but it can inform them. ## Unit 1C - Theories on the Origin of Life * **Photo:** Panspermia, one theory on the origin of life. * **How do you think life originated on Earth?** * A. Extra-terrestrial aliens brought it. * B. They came along with the meteors from other planets. * C. Some superhuman powers created it. * D. Chemicals from primordial soup combined to make life. * E. None of the above. ### Theories on the Origin of Life * Until now, the process of how life jumped from inorganic matter has no definitive explanation. The following theories attempt to account for that: * 1. Divine Creation Theory * Life is believed to be created by a supernatural being - God, Buddha, Allah... * Based on Bible, Koran, etc. * Axiom - accepted by faith. * 2. Cozmozoic or Interplenary/Panspermia * A protoplasm in the form of a resistant spore originated from outer space and hits the earth by radiation pressure. * Hundreds of thousands of meteorites and comets hit the Earth. * Brought organic molecules formed by abiotic reactions in the outer space. * 3. Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis) * Living things can arise directly from non-living things. * By Aristotle (and other Greeks). * Frogs arise from damp. * Insects arise from dew. * Maggots arise from decaying meat. * **Factors:** warmth, moisture, sunlight, and starlight. * 4. Biogenesis * Attributed to Louis Pasteur, states that complex living things come only from other living things, by reproduction. * E.g., Flies lay eggs on meat, which develop into maggots - experiment by Francesco Redi. * 5. Natural/Marine * Oceans contain inorganic and organic substances that formed organic substances from chemical reactions (biomolecules) plus metabolic atmospheres that contain O2 and CO2 and made life possible. * 6. Philosophical Theory of Eternity * Life has a beginning and has an end, it has been there from the very beginning of time (Alpha Omega). * 7. Physico-chemical/Coacervate Droplet * A.I. Oparin in 1936 suggested that the origin of life was preceded by the formation of mixed colloidal units called "coacervates" - might be protein, lipid or nucleic acid. * Occurred during Earth's early age after formation. * Most scientific and most accepted theory. * **Painting:** The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo. * **Photo:** An image of the early Earth with volcanoes spewing lava. * **Photo:** A picture of a clock face. ## Unit 1D - Characteristic of Living Things * **Photo:** Shameplant leaves close in response to external stimuli. ### Characteristics of Living Things * Organism are built by assembling large molecules, much as a house is assembled from building blocks. * Living organisms are manifestations of life. * Although it may seem easy, the line between living organisms and non-living objects blurs in microscopic entities. Hence, reviewing the characteristics of living things is essential. 1. **Organization**: * Living organisms maintain an internal order. * The **basic unit** of organization is the **cell**. * **Diagram:** A diagram of the organizational levels in living things from atoms to the biosphere. * **Photo:** An image of a lion with labels of organism to ecosystem. 2. **Metabolism**: * Living organisms utilize energy. * Metabolism is the total set of processes involving energy accompanied by physical and chemical changes. * **Processes:** * **Anabolism** - formation of complex substances from simple ones - "building up" process: * Example: Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide = Disaccharide * **Catabolism** - breaking down of complex substances to simpler ones - "breaking down" process: * Example: Disaccharides -> monosaccharide + monosaccharide 3. **Growth and Development**: * **Growth** refers to the increase in size and mass of an organism. * **Development** is the maturation of an organism physiologically and functionally. * **Diagram:** A diagram of a Nile Crocodile hatching from an egg. * **Photo:** A crocodile hatching from an egg. * **Food (taken in) - metabolized - assimilated (absorbed and distributed via the circulatory system for nourishment)** * **Inherited information carried by genes controls the pattern of growth and development of organisms, such as this Nile Crocodile (Campbell).** 4. **Reproduction**: * To sustain life over many generations, organisms must **reproduce** (the formation of new individuals). * **Types:** * **Sexual** – gametes. * **Asexual** - no gametes/no fertilization taken place. * **Photo:** A picture of a mother duck with ducklings. 5. **Responsiveness and Irritability**: * Organisms interact with their environment and react to **stimuli** that result in movement. * **Stimulus:** factor in the environment capable of producing any form of activity from an organism. * **Photo:** A picture of a Mimosa pudica plant. * **The leaves of Mimosa pudica close under various stimuli, such as touching, warming, blowing, or shaking.** * **The movement occurs when specific regions of cells lose turgor pressure, which is the force that is applied onto the cell wall by water within the cell vacuoles and other cell contents.** 6. **Adaptation**: * A process in which an organism slowly or rapidly becomes better suited to its environment in order to survive (a change in traits). * **Traits** - help species to survive and traits can be: structural, physiological, and behavioral. * **Diagram** An illustration of two islands separated by a mountain range with different types of trees on each side of the mountain range. * **Photo:** A pygmy seahorse camouflaged on red coral. * **Adaptation to different environments can lead to speciation such as in allopatric speciation. However, speciation can occur without geographic isolation, as seen in sympatric speciation.** 7. **Homeostasis**: * Organisms regulate their bodies to **maintain stable internal conditions** requisite to life - a process known as homeostasis. * **Photo:** A jackrabbit with big ears. * **The regulation of blood flow through the blood vessels of this jackrabbit's ears helps maintain a constant body temperature by adjusting heat exchange with the surrounding air (Campbell).** 8. **Definite Form, Size, and Genetic Composition**: * Due to the transmission of genetic material, living things produce offspring with similar traits. * Every species contains the same genetic program. 9. **Evolution**: * A **gradual change** in the character of the species over the course of successive generations (a change in species level). * Enable organisms to live and survive in their environment more efficiently than their ancestors. * **Photo:** A diagram of a phylogenetic tree of the Galapagos finches. * **Photo:** A diagram of the different beak types of the Galapagos finches. * **Darwin concluded in his study that in each locality one or more individual finch happened to acquire, by random mutation, a beak shape more suitable for the food sources in that locality.** ## Unit 1E - Chemical Basis of Life * **Photo:** Protein Folding. ### Chemical Basis of Life #### Matter * Anything that occupies space and has mass. * It exists in three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas. #### Element * A substance that **cannot be broken down** into other substances by chemical means. * Great variety of matter come from elements. * **Significant elements of living organisms include:** * Carbon * Hydrogen * Oxygen * Nitrogen * Sulfur * Potassium * Calcium * Phosphorus * Iron * Sodium * Chlorine * Manganese * Magnesium #### Trace Elements * Needed by organisms only in small amounts. * **C, H, O, N** are the major elements of living cells. #### Compound * A combination of two or more elements through different types of chemical bonds. * **Types:** * **A. Inorganic**: * Smaller, less complex, and do not necessarily contain carbon (ex. water, gasses and salts). * 1. **Water**: * Very important medium for chemical reactions. * Also known as the universal solvent. #### Emergent Properties Of Water Conducive To Life 1. **Cohesion and Adhesion of Water Molecules:** * Hydrogen bonds keep water more structured than other liquids. * **E.g.** Cohesion of water molecules and its adhesion to surfaces facilitate the transport of water and nutrients in plants from roots to shoot. 2. **High Specific Heat of Water:** * Water has a high specific heat (it takes more heat energy to raise its temperature). * **E.g.** Since most organisms are primarily made of water, they can effectively **resist changes in internal temperature**, thereby maintaining homeostasis. 3. **High Heat of Vaporization of Water:** * Water has a high heat of vaporization (it takes more heat energy to vaporize it). * **E.g.** As sweat (primarily water) evaporates due to absorption of heat, the body cools down. 4. **Water's Unique Density:** * Compared to other substances that become more dense as they solidify/freeze, water **becomes less dense when it turns to ice.** * This unique density allows ice to float over water. * **E.g.** During winters, as water freezes, the ice floats over the surface, insulating the water below and keeping it from freezing, thus still supporting aquatic life. 5. **Water as a Universal Solvent:** * Water is a versatile solvent and can dissolve a wide variety of substances (polar, ionic, and non-ionic compounds). * Due to its polarity and ability to form hydrogen bonds. * **Hydrophilic**: "water-loving", attracted to water. * **Hydrophobic**: "water-fearing", resists water. * **Photo:** A diagram of a water molecule showing its polarity. * **B. Organic**- are principal material that makes up the living organism. * Always contain carbon, usually in combination with water and oxygen (ex. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid). * 1. **Carbohydrates**: * Are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules. * Storage and transport of energy (ex. starch and glycogen). * Building block of carbohydrates are glucose molecules. * **Types:** * **Monosaccharide** - single subunits that serve as energy storage molecules (e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose). * **Disaccharide** - also known as double sugars. It is composed of 2 sugar subunits (monosaccharides). - **Soluble in water**. (e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose). * **Polysaccharide** - chain of poly or multisugar units - **Generally insoluble in water.** (e.g. cellulose, glycogen and starch). * **Photo:** A model of a glucose molecule. * **Photo:** A diagram of a starch molecule with labels of its subunits. * 2. **Lipids**: * Insoluble in water. * The building block of lipids are fatty acids. * **Fats** - provide the ideal long-term energy storage. * **Types:** * **Saturated**: solid at room temp. (animal oil) - lacks double bonds and is therefore saturated with hydrogen atoms. * **Unsaturated**: liquid at room temp. (plant oil) - contain one or more double bonds. * **Diagram:** A diagram of saturated and unsaturated fat molecules. * 3. **Protein**: * A diverse group of long chains of amino acids. * Amino acids are the building block of protein. * **More abundant in animal protoplasm.** * **Functions:** * Act as a catalyst (enzymes). * Structural and regulatory roles (hormones). * Defense. * **Photo:** A diagram of the different functions of proteins in the body. * 4. **Nucleic Acids**: * Controls the activity of the cell. * Directs what to do and when to reproduce. * Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids. * **DNA**: * Strand: Single * Sugar: Deoxyribose * Phosphate: PO4 * Nitrogen Base: Thymine * **RNA**: * Strand: Double * Sugar: Ribose * Phosphate: PO4 * Nitrogen Base: Uracil. * **Photo:** A diagram of the DNA and RNA molecules with labels of their structures. * **Photo:** A diagram of the nucleotide bases of DNA & RNA with their chemical structures. * **Photo:** A diagram of the DNA and RNA molecules. ## End of Unit 1