Beyond Flavour Wine Tasting by Structure PDF

Beyond Flavour  Beyond Flavour Wine Tasting by Structure Second Edition Nick Jackson Master of Wine Cover design and illustrations by Ashton Dunn and Chloe Lombard Copyright © 2022 Nick Jackson All rights reserved. homo proponit, sed Deus disponit ...

Beyond Flavour  Beyond Flavour Wine Tasting by Structure Second Edition Nick Jackson Master of Wine Cover design and illustrations by Ashton Dunn and Chloe Lombard Copyright © 2022 Nick Jackson All rights reserved. homo proponit, sed Deus disponit  Contents Foreword to the Second Edition Introduction How to Use this Book Structure: The Basics Tasting for Grape Variety Other Wine Styles Tasting for Region of Origin Tasting for Quality Miscellaneous Advice Appendix I: How to Approach Blind Tasting Exam Questions Appendix II: Table of Structure Appendix III: Table of Indicative Analytical Values Acknowledgements About the Author  Foreword to the Second Edition The success of the first edition of Beyond Flavour was my principal pleasure in the plague year of 2020. Released at the very beginning of the year, its existence almost perfectly coincides with the Covid era. 2020 was, I suppose, a boon for book authors in a world where people suddenly had enforced time at home to read and study. Perhaps that partly explains the sales I enjoyed; some well-placed reviews helped also. But in the final analysis, what I thought were simply some idiosyncratic thoughts about wine tasting of interest to a few wine students turned out to have much broader resonance. And for that I am grateful and humbled. Why, then, a second edition? First, to make the book more user-friendly. I took many shortcuts in the first edition because I did not anticipate a large readership. But it is appropriate now to make the book easier to read. Organisation of entries is clearer, the index helpful, the structure table a useful tool. The ‘confusions’ section and producer recommendations for each variety entry are meant to be of practical use. But more important than those revisions is the new content. Since I published the first edition, I have both been invited to present on the subjects discussed in the book and have myself run webinar courses on the same. Readers are invited to view the webinar recordings on YouTube under the School of Taste channel. It is often said that you do not know a topic truly until you have taught it, and that is certainly true in this case. I became aware through many hours of teaching these subjects that some of my descriptions worked better than others; that some were confusing; that descriptions could be enhanced through the inclusion of additional material. And moreover, I developed further insights and ideas. Two insights in particular I develop in the second edition. The first is to centralise shape of acid structure in white wines and location of tannins in red wines as being the most valuable and reliable aspects of acid and tannin structure respectively. I had mentioned in the first edition that the level and type of acidity and tannin do change according to climate and other factors, but perhaps I did not draw out that fact sufficiently. I emphasise that variability more in this edition, with the concomitant effect that what does not change – shape and location – become proportionately more important.  The second key aspect of my thought that has developed since the first edition concerns how acid, tannin and other elements of wines work together to give a distinctive taste impression. We know that acid or tannin structure contributes more than simply the skeleton or frame of a wine. It is also integral to providing attributes such as attack, texture, dryness and savouriness. But other components of a wine can do this too. What about those? While it is good to assess structure, it is only possible to understand its full role in the context of other elements of a wine such as aromas, fruit profile, phenolic content and many others. In my conception, wine is a seesaw of different elements which need balancing against one other to realise a successful harmony. Structure is one of the most important contributing elements, but there are many others too. I try and make these others more explicit in this edition, and to that end, I have included a ‘construction’ summary sentence at the beginning of each variety entry; this is my attempt to summarise how the different elements of a wine work together to shape the experience of a wine on the palate. I have always wanted to avoid the impression that the ideas I discuss in this book are tricks or ‘tells’ for certain wines. To reduce acid or tannin structure merely to blind tasting games does not do justice to the complex role they play in a wine. In this edition I suggest that situating structure within a broader conception of a wine’s ‘construction’ helps explain why a wine tastes like it does, and why it behaves like it does in the mouth. A wine is much more than a mass of fruit, acidity and tannin, but in order to get to that understanding, we do need to do the hard work of understanding the fruit, acidity and tannin. In other words, you can use this book as simply a helpful list of characteristics that different varieties and regions tend to exhibit, but you can also begin to think about how these aspects are merely stopping off points en route to a more complete and satisfying understanding of wine. Jupiter, Florida, Feast of the Assumption, 2022  Introduction In early July 2016, I flew from New York to Frankfurt on a red-eye flight. By noon, I was sitting in a beer garden on the southern bank of the Rhine, looking out over the expansive vineyards of the Rheingau on the steep slopes opposite. I was there for a week of visits to some of the best wine producers in Germany, followed by a week of the same in Montalcino. As I sat there, pondering the two weeks to come, I came to a realisation that would change everything about wine for me. The realisation was simple: I had been tasting wine all wrong. All wrong. It needed to change – and quickly. A few weeks earlier, I had sat the stage one assessment (S1A) exams for the Master of Wine (MW) qualification. The purpose of the S1A is brutal but effective: to cull the wheat from the chaff of MW students. By passing, you are not awarded anything – other than the opportunity to sit the real MW exams, one year later. Progress to stage two, and you can legitimately consider yourself having a shot of becoming a Master of Wine. But failure to pass S1A means your career as a MW student never really got out of the starting blocks. The S1A exam consists of two theory questions, each to be answered in one- hour essays, and 12 wines, tasted blind. However the questions are presented in the tasting exam, their intention is always to make the taster identify origin, variety and quality successfully. Do that, and everything else should fall into place for the rest of the questions. Now, given that the S1A exam is not meant to be as taxing as the MW exam itself, I was fairly confident I had done enough to pass the theory part. It was the tasting part that I was worried about. A few days after the exam, I received the list of wines. I had correctly identified perhaps seven or eight out of 12 varieties, and about the same number of the countries of origin. But this was very borderline to pass. And more to the point, I had felt strongly while sitting in the exam room that ultimately I had no real justification for a lot of my answers. Even if they turned out to be right, I was more fortunate than skilled. I could not get over this nagging sense that really, too much of the time, I was just guessing. I was in Germany and Italy in order to gather examples for the theory part of the exam the following year – I had booked the trip with the expectation that I would pass S1A. And even that seemed to be in doubt now. So I made up my mind while sitting there, beer in hand, that the way that I was blind tasting wines had to change. No. More. Guessing. When I got back to New York, I learned I had, in fact, passed the S1A exam. The anonymous examiners scolded me for my less than stellar tasting, but I had scraped through. Now I had less than one year until the real exam to figure out how to taste confidently, accurately and consistently. Flavour Folly The way I practised blind tasting at home was simple. On a Thursday, I would buy anywhere between six and 12 wines to make a flight. Then I would taste them every day for four days, ‘half blind’ (I knew what the wines were, just not the order they came in). I would make each flight intentionally difficult by including wines that could easily be confused for one another. For example, I might have a flight of: Left Bank Bordeaux, Cahors, Argentinian Malbec, Australian Shiraz, Côtes du Rhône and Bandol rouge. The first day I tasted them I would get a lot wrong. But I would note down the particular characteristics of each wine and read back my notes before the next day’s session. Then I would taste again and reduce the number of mistakes. While practice improved my tasting, it certainly did not make it perfect. In my WSET studies (qualifications earned earlier in my wine career, and necessary for entry to the MW program), I had learned to identify five different aromas and flavours present in a wine. This would surely narrow down the possibilities. But that is easier said than done, when, to use the set of wines just mentioned, any one of them could have a dominant note of blackberry. In the flight described, another option was to consider ripeness levels. Surely Argentinian Malbec is riper than Malbec from Cahors? Of course, but then the question enters my mind, could this Argentinian Malbec actually be Argentinian Cabernet Sauvignon? As any wine student knows, though, Cabernet has a green note to it. That is the classic description. But anyone who has tasted any Left Bank cru classé Bordeaux in the past 15 years knows that Cabernet is no longer made with that green note. So both Malbec and Cabernet from a warm climate country like Argentina are full bodied, black fruited, tannic varieties. How to distinguish them? To state the question even more acutely, here is an example of this problem that I experienced first-hand when I sat the Master of Wine exam in June 2017. The question told candidates that these two wines were made from the same predominant variety – the student’s job was to identify what the variety was. The wines were later revealed to be: Cuvée Juveniles, Torbreck. 2014. Barossa Valley, Australia Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Domaine du Vieux Lazaret. 2013. Rhône Valley, France I clearly remember sticking my nose in both glasses, and in both, getting a distinct whiff of pepper. Sure, I tasted them thereafter, but my mind was already made up. These wines were obviously Syrah based. But no: the dominant variety was Grenache. Well, you might say, you simply mistook white for black pepper (white pepper is a classic note for Grenache, and black for Syrah). Probably I did. But can you be sure, 1) that you would never make the same mistake? and, 2) that some predominantly Grenache wines don’t have a hint of black pepper, or that Syrah wines don’t have a touch of white pepper? On that question I picked up some marks, because I had identified Barossa and the Rhône Valley as the likely regions of origin. But I had walked right into the trap the examiners had set – I had not considered all the elements of the wine and had based my Syrah answer simply on flavours. From the subsequently published examiners’ report, it was evident that many candidates had done the same. When I discovered what the wines were after the exam, this mistake was particularly frustrating because I had been teaching myself not to rely on flavours for all the reasons discussed above. I was also aware that winemakers could manipulate flavour through picking date, yeast choice, blending choices, choice of ageing vessel etc. Could a variety even be trusted to taste consistently the same? During my practice tastings in the year preceding the exam, it had become very obvious that flavours were not helping me at all. Anything could taste like anything. But what was the alternative to flavours? What else could you base your understanding of a wine on? Beyond Flavour At some point during the year leading up to the S1A exam, I had heard a MW use the expression ‘acid structure’ with reference to white wines. It was the first time I had heard the phrase, and it was a lightbulb moment for me. Of course, I knew that a key element of red wines was tannin structure, but now I began to consider that white wines might have a structure – a skeleton – in a similar way. I had a vague awareness that tannin structure in red wines differed between varieties, not just in terms of quantity but also in terms of quality – what the tannins felt like in the mouth. At that moment, I started wondering whether the same might be true of acid structure in white wines. In my tastings at home, I began to focus obsessively on acid structure in whites and tannin structure in reds. I would note what the structure of different varieties felt like and amend it when I tasted wines from other producers. And then amend it again. Finally, I had a roster of structure profiles for all the major varieties. Where flavour had been an unreliable guide, I found that the structure of a variety changes far less, whatever the winemaker or climate does. And without even realising it was happening, I started getting a lot more wines correct. And more importantly, I was not guessing any longer. When the exam came around, I had been focusing on structure for months. And on paper 1 – the white wines paper – I relied on it in a striking way. One of the wines on the paper was clearly European by its dryness and overall balance, but it was simply covered in new French oak to the exclusion of all other aromas. There was nothing to smell here, other than winemaking. If you are invested in a flavour- led approach, how do you approach a wine like that? I got stuck on the wine and was spending too long on it (the MW tasting exams are a rush – you absolutely must maintain your discipline to ensure you finish every question). I wrote out the answer for a white Rioja, one of a handful of European white wines that can see a lot of oak. But it just did not feel right. There was a firm acidity at the heart of the wine, but it was well masked by a rich, slightly viscous texture and high alcohol. I scratched my white Rioja answer and wrote a Condrieu answer. After the exam, I was the only person I spoke to who got the wine right.* Relying on structure had been the key. I felt vindicated. Ignoring flavour, I passed the MW theory and tasting exams at the first attempt in June 2017 and became a Master of Wine in February 2019.  This book is an attempt to describe key characteristics of the major grape varieties and wine-producing regions to facilitate wine identification and improve understanding. My methodology relies on assessing a wine’s structure first and foremost: that is, how the wine feels in the mouth. That is why I dedicate a substantial section at the beginning of the book to explaining a structure-based approach to tasting. However, while many grape varieties can be identified using structure alone, supporting evidence is invaluable to confirm an identification. Whatever can help with the difficult task of identifying wines I have pushed into service in the descriptions of varieties that follow, foremost among which is my attempt to describe the overall sensation of a wine through the ‘construction’ sentence at the beginning of each variety entry. While the following pages do not focus solely on structure, structure remains the golden thread throughout. Finally, a word of warning: all my perceptions are just that — mine. The way I try to explain a wine’s principal characteristics may not resonate with you. In that case, ignore whatever does not speak to you. But in the time since I passed the exam, I have taught my approach to many students, and not one has failed to tell me that it has helped them. My wish is that it may help you, too. * The wine was: Condrieu, Côteau de Vernon, Georges Vernay, 2014. I subsequently tasted this wine, and it is not at all oaky – it was a strange showing.  How to Use this Book The purpose of this book is to improve your understanding of important wine varieties, regions and styles. If you are a wine lover, you should learn a lot about what makes wines taste as they do. If you are a wine student facing blind tasting exams, it should directly help your blind tasting skills. In the grape variety entries, I discuss all attributes I think most helpful to facilitate correct wine identifications. To that end, you should use the book in whatever way best meets your needs. Certainly, you do not have to read the book all the way through. It is a reference book, to come back to as you are tasting. There is only one essential section to read, and that is the following one, about the structure-based approach. You have to read that in order to understand my approach and my terminology throughout. You may also wish to read the introduction to Tasting for Grape Variety, which explains in more detail the components of each grape variety entry. The main part of the book is a study of the different varieties. I work through 59 important wine grape varieties and discuss the characteristics I find most distinctive for each, including, but not limited to, structure. In addition, I describe the characteristics of key regional styles for each grape variety. That is, under Pinot Noir, I describe what wines from the most important appellations of red Burgundy taste like. Of necessity, I could only include the most important regions, those commonly found on international markets. I then move on to separate entries for sparkling, sweet, fortified, rosé and orange wines. Rather than treat these under their grape varieties, I thought it preferable to separate them out and focus on the style of the wines, simply because the style of these wines usually speaks louder than the varieties that go into them. But it goes without saying that the influence of the varieties is still strong, so each entry should be read in conjunction with that of the relevant variety/ies. Later in the book, I discuss some general considerations of tasting for origin. That is, what characteristics of a wine tell you about where its grape are grown? I look first at how to taste for climate, and then examine key wine producing countries. Here, the emphasis is less on structure (because I have largely covered that under the section on grape varieties) and more on general characteristics typical of wines from each country. Please note that when it comes to grape varieties, I focus on the most important varieties worldwide. Since much of the readership of this book will be those studying wine, I focus on the varieties which it is fair to expect students to have some experience of. Are there sometimes unusual varieties on wine exams? Of course, but in that case, questions are more likely to focus on identifying origin and on wine style than on identifying the variety. So if you are particularly interested in varieties grown in Jura, Croatia or many other regions, you will need to refer to more detailed texts for your information. At the end of the book, I address one of wine tasting’s most fundamental but least well performed tasks: tasting for quality. For professional purposes, the ability to assess quality is far more important than being able to identify variety or origin – and yet we often seem to neglect it. Throughout the book, I use technical language beyond just that associated with wine structure. I have tried to define the more technical wine terms in the Tasting Glossary. A Word of Caution In his book Range, David Epstein draws a contrast between ‘conceptual’ and ‘procedural’ problems (2019, pp. 82ff). Procedural problems simply require the outworking of a learned method to arrive at a solution. Conceptual problems are ones which ‘[connect] students to a broader concept, rather than just a procedure.’ Procedural problems are more quickly executed once the method is understood, but less likely to cause the student to engage with any broader conceptual implications. Conceptual problems, meanwhile, are taxing and often complicated, but ultimately teach the student how to think through a problem, rather than just execute a solution. This book discusses the conceptual problem of how best to taste wine in order to understand it. I develop a methodology in response, one that requires rigorous engagement when tasting and which must be carefully applied every time. Since I am proposing a method (a ‘concept’) of wine tasting, I have to put it to the test, which is what the entries on the grape varieties are. And that always risks the entries looking as if they are the ‘final word’ on the grape variety in question (incidentally, the table of structure risks that even more, but I had so many requests for it I felt obliged to include it). It also risks encouraging readers simply to roll out a ‘procedural’ response: if this is the wine, the correct language to describe it is x, y, z. Indeed, the most common misreading of the first edition was to interpret the book as a kind of ‘da Vinci code’ of wine tasting which, since I had ‘cracked’ it, all that readers needed to do was memorise my language and repeat as needed. I dislike this reading of the book. While I understand why it happened (and that I am probably at fault for it), the book is much better read as a conceptual proposal for a method of tasting rather than any definitive judgement on what wines taste like — which will never be reached as long as there are human beings tasting wine. I would be most satisfied if readers would focus on the method rather than on the results that I have suggested. Use the method and you may come up with different results, but you will have improved your wine tasting skills. A word on generalisations A book like this requires drawing detailed and specific conclusions from a broad mass of data – in this case, the many wines I have tasted over years of study and teaching. While I am confident in the profiles for varieties presented here, when it comes to their regional identities, I have had to use a necessarily broad brushstroke. Due to the diversity of wine styles in any wine region, any generalisation will have exceptions – in fact, numerous ones. But I maintain a belief that regional characteristics do exist. My simple supporting evidence: the fact that people like me have passed blind tasting exams which ask about these characteristics. Using the general descriptions included in these pages, I have successfully identified many regions in blind tastings. Nonetheless, you should expect to find examples that do not conform to my descriptions, both because my descriptions are far from perfect, and because of the numerous stylistically divergent wines. Wine regions and styles are changing so quickly it is difficult to keep up; I have simply made my best attempt here. The website The first edition of the book featured a vintage guide for important fine wine producing regions. I have now housed this on my website: www.vintagevariation.com/beyond-flavour so I can update it annually.  On that page you will also find downloadable PDFs of the table of structure (Appendix II) and the table of indicative analytical values (Appendix III). A few disclaimers The approach to tasting I describe in this book is a sensory one. That is, it is based on what our senses tell us as we taste. It certainly is not a scientific approach. I would be very happy if someone discovered scientific evidence for the suggestions I make about structure, but I certainly do not claim any scientific authority. I have already mentioned my mistrust of flavours, and I am aware that this stands in contrast to many, if not most, approaches to tasting. However, you will note that I do talk about flavours. I try, though, to confine them as much as possible to confirmatory evidence once an initial identification has been formed on the basis of some other more reliable element, often structure. You will also notice that, in contrast to many tasting processes/grids, I do not linger on wine colour. Where it is particularly noteworthy (for example, if it is particularly deep or pale), of course it is appropriate to mention it as confirmatory evidence. But with a few obvious exceptions, colour has never done much for me other than eliminate some possibilities. One important consideration as you are tasting for variety: higher-priced wines will tend to show varietal characteristics more clearly than cheaper examples. More careful winemaking from higher quality regions of origin allow a variety to express itself most clearly. Wines priced under USD/EUR 12 or GBP 10 may not, therefore, be the best examples to work with as you read through the entries on each variety. Above that price, you should begin to perceive variety increasingly clearly. So read the next section, then dip into the entries on your favourite varieties or wine styles – glass in hand, naturally.  Structure: The Basics Acid Structure in White Wines While acidity often goes unmentioned in red wines, in white wines, it is a central element that any taster must consider. And yet there is often far more to acidity in whites than many tasters realise. In the simplest terms, acid is a white wine’s structure, its skeleton, while the fruit is the flesh. Acid structure is intrinsic to white varieties in the same way that tannin structure is to reds. In both cases, you assess structure on the palate. Each variety has a slightly different acid structure, so if you can perceive the structure correctly, you should be able to identify the variety. So how do you perceive acid structure in white wines? There are three key elements to acid structure. They are: shape, type and level of acidity. All three should be tasted while the wine is in your mouth, before swallowing/spitting, although the finish of the wine may be used to confirm your impressions. I will explain each below, beginning with the most important: the shape of acidity. While type and level can change according to climate and winemaking, shape is the most consistent and reliable and for that reason the most important to start with. Shape of acidity The most difficult – but ultimately most valuable – of all the ways of assessing a white wine’s acidity is to consider what shape the acid structure assumes on the palate. Every major variety has a slightly different shape of acidity in the mouth: if you can perceive it correctly, it will much improve your understanding of the variety. So what does it mean to say that acidity has a shape? In very simple terms, acidity is felt in different places and at different levels during the journey of the wine across the palate. By ‘journey’ I mean the period the wine spends in your mouth. Acidity may be felt primarily on entry. Or on the finish. Or both. And if felt on both start and finish, it may remain consistent in terms of its level, or it may increase or decrease between the two. By combining where the acidity is felt (beginning, middle, end) with how strongly it is felt at these points, you can identify a ‘shape’ to each acid structure. Using the example of Chenin Blanc, Chenin has a crescendo shaped acid structure. That is, on entry the wine feels quite soft, without much obvious acidity. But as you hold the wine on the palate, the acidity seems to increase, until it really screams on the finish. It grows, or crescendos, from start to finish. Chenin Blanc in fact has one of the more interesting shapes of acidity: others are more uniform (e.g. Chardonnay, Semillon). But every variety has a shape to the acidity; the task is to learn what they are and be able to identify them. Type of acidity Correctly identifying the shape of acidity narrows down your range of possible grape varieties. But a helpful technique to home in further is to assess the type of acidity. By ‘type’ I mean the quality of the acidity – what it feels like. To continue with the same example, classic Loire Chenin Blanc has a bracing quality to the acidity. That is, you feel that the enamel on your teeth is in danger if you keep the wine in your mouth too long. The acidity is so strong, it really wakes you up. By contrast, Riesling (another highly acidic variety) has a different type of acidity, which results in a totally different, more tingling and less piercing sensation on the palate. The type of acidity can, frustratingly, be affected by factors such as climate, yield and winemaking. So as with level of acidity (below) we can only speak with qualified confidence about the type of each major variety’s acidity. In my descriptions in this book, I have tried to identify the most common types of acidity for each variety. I will describe the different types of acidity of each major white variety in the sections dedicated to each. But to persist with the example of Chenin Blanc, when combining the first two of our three categories for assessing acid structure, we can now say that Chenin Blanc has ‘crescendo shaped, bracing acidity’. That already is a very detailed description. But through our final technique – assessing the level of the acidity – we can make this description even more specific to the variety. One note of caution: I have a preferred term for each variety’s type of acidity (‘bracing’ in the case of Chenin or ‘jagged’ for Sauvignon Blanc). You may have a different term that more accurately captures the quality of the acidity. Use whatever term speaks to you but ensure that it is one that will also be understood by others. Level of acidity This is usually the simplest of the three elements to identify. How much acidity is there in this wine? This category comes last in our assessment of the three components of acid structure because the answer for any variety can be heavily dependent on the growing climate or even the vintage conditions. But in the most general terms some varieties have more acidity than others. If something smells like a Sauvignon Blanc but has low acidity, it is unlikely to be a Sauvignon Blanc. Sauvignon Blanc without acidity would be pointless. Here are a few broad categories: High acidity: Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Albariño, Chenin Blanc, Aligoté, Furmint Moderate acidity: Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Marsanne, Viura, Viognier, Arneis, Verdicchio Low acidity: Gewürtztraminer Tip: in contrast to what most tasters intuitively believe, very few white varieties actually have low acidity. Usually they just have moderate but soft acidity. How do you perceive level of acidity? The best way is the classic way: how much does this wine make you salivate? If you are still hesitant about answering that question, after you have swallowed/spat, leave your mouth open for 5-10 seconds, and you will have your answer. The more your mouth waters, the higher the level of acidity. Another test is to line up three glasses, non-blind, and taste in order: from a Gewürtztraminer, to a Chardonnay and finally a Loire Chenin Blanc, to see the movement from low to high acidity.  So now we can put together the three strands of acid structure analysis: shape, type and level. If we encountered a Chenin Blanc, we could say that it has: ‘a crescendo shaped acid structure, with a high level of bracing acidity’. And with a description that tight, you are only left with one option for variety. Again, type and level of acidity vary at least somewhat according to factors such as region of origin, yields and winemaking decisions. It is possible to say that Chardonnay has moderate levels of acidity, and that statement is often true. But it is clearly not true in Champagne. Or that Riesling has steely acidity; almost always true, but in Austria it can often be more tangy. Understanding the limitations of level and type of acidity means that while we can make general comments on those, you should expect to find differences within them across different wines and regions. All of this goes to show the key importance of the shape of acidity. For my contention is that whatever style of wine or region or winemaking, the elemental shape of a white wine’s acidity does not change. For that reason, of the three elements of acid structure, shape is the most important for understanding a wine’s structure. In many respects, this is a frustrating aspect of a structural approach to tasting white wines, because the concept of the shape of acidity is a hard one to grasp immediately, and also because even if you do, tasting for shape is difficult. However, acid shape remains the most reliable indicator of a variety’s identity and with attentive tasting, most wine tasters will soon understand it. If you are also identifying a wine’s region of origin, identifying the variety correctly reduces the range of possible regions of origin to those where the variety is cultivated. At this point, an analysis of how ripe the wine is and in what style it has been made will provide the best evidence for where the wine comes from. I discuss how to perform this analysis in Tasting for Region of Origin. Tannin Structure in Red Wines Tannin structure in red wines is a far more familiar concept than acid structure in whites. But again, while familiarity with the idea is strong, the full potential of tannin structure as a tool for identifying varieties remains underappreciated. For acid structure in white wines, we discussed shape, type and level of acidity. For tannin structure in red wines, two of those categories remain, and one changes. The three components of tannin structure are: location of tannin, type of tannin and level of tannin. These three elements of tannin structure are best tasted on the finish of the wine; i.e., after you have swallowed or spat. Listen to what the tannins are telling you at that point; they will not reveal all their secrets while the wine is in your mouth. Let us examine each of these three components in turn. Location of tannin The tannins for each different red variety are perceived in different physical places in your mouth. If you have never really thought about where you feel tannins, you would probably imagine that on the palate, tannins are felt all over. But more careful tasting will reveal otherwise. To use the example of Sangiovese, the tannins are felt on the gums, rather than on the tongue or in the cheeks. Does this mean that there is no sensation of drying whatsoever on the tongue or in the cheeks? No, of course not. It means that in general, the focus of the drying effects of the tannins is felt on the gums. The shape of a white wine’s acid structure is the most difficult but also the most useful way to assess a white wine. In the same vein, learning to identify where in your mouth you feel a red wine’s tannins may be tricky, but can hugely facilitate identification. Now, there are a large number of varieties where the tannins are felt on the gums. By itself, that information is useless. But when combined with assessments of level and of type of tannin, it is possible to identify the variety much more easily. Type of tannin Just as white wines have different types of acidity, so red wines have different types, or textures, of tannin. To use one example, Sangiovese has sandy tannins. The tannins feel a little like rubbing your palate with sandpaper. Other types of tannin are a bit more amorphous: ‘loose knit’ or ‘fine grained’ are perhaps less easy to understand readily. That terminology does not describe the texture as clearly as ‘sandy’ does. I will discuss each type of tannin and how to identify and understand it under the relevant section for each variety. Once again though, describing a Chianti Classico as having ‘sandy tannins felt on the gums’ is a much more effective description than simply saying ‘tannins felt on the gums.’ A final note. All the descriptions in this book are written on the assumption that you are tasting the wine 1-3 years after bottling, when wines are usually commercially available. During bottle ageing, the process of tannin polymerisation (small molecules of tannins combining to form longer chains) has the effect of creating a softer type or texture of tannin. A wine that has particularly grainy or sandy tannin will never lose it completely, but polymerisation will make the tannins feel smoother. If you are tasting an older red wine (perceived by the presence of tertiary aromas and flavours), be aware that the tannins will taste smoother and softer than my descriptions may suggest. Level of tannin This is the most readily understandable of the three components of tannin structure. Different varieties show different levels of tannin. Once again, this will depend on a range of factors including climate of origin, age of the wine and winemaking style. But in general, we can suggest the following tannin levels for some major varieties: High: Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo, Aglianico, Malbec Moderate: Merlot, Tempranillo, Sangiovese, Grenache, Cabernet Franc, Syrah Tip: while varieties like Pinot Noir, Gamay or Corvina can have low levels of tannin, in this book, I put them all in the moderate category since so many examples have at least moderate levels (think Central Otago, Brouilly and Amarone, respectively). Correctly assessing the tannin level is an excellent clue to what the variety might be. The easiest way of doing this is simply to consider how much the tannins dry out your mouth. The more they do, and the quicker they do (while you hold the wine in your mouth), the higher the level of tannin the variety has. Many Argentinian Malbec wines, for example, will start creating a drying session almost immediately upon entry. Young grand cru red Burgundy, by contrast, will dry out your mouth – but only after 10 or more seconds on the palate. That final point is also a reminder that if you hold almost any red wine on the palate for an extended length of time, it will seem quite tannic. Avoid drying out your palate by standardising the amount of time you spend with the wine on your palate to, say, five seconds or fewer. In the case of Sangiovese, ‘moderate to high levels of sandy tannins, felt on the gums’, quickly reduces the number of possibilities. From there, it is possible to deduce the origin of the wine through analysis of other attributes: fruit concentration, fruit texture, acidity, length, etc. At this point, it is necessary to submit the same qualification as that stated above in connection with white wines. Both level and type of tannin will be dependent on variable factors, and, as such, can change. That is, a winemaker may choose to extract more or less tannins during fermentation, thus rendering difficult a straightforward association between a variety and the level of tannins it should exhibit. And when it comes to type of tannin, it is simply a fact that warmer climates (or vintages) show a different type of tannin to that of the same variety grown in a cooler climate (see, for example, the entry on Syrah). All of which is to say that the location of tannins is, like the shape of acidity for white wines, the most constant, reliable and important feature of assessing tannin structure in red wines. Whatever the climate or winemaking, the location of the tannins in the mouth remains the same variety by variety. Annoyingly, this does not help the taster very much because there are simply not that many places in your mouth where you can feel the tannins. Your options are rather limited (unlike the shape of acidity, where your imagination is your guide). So you will see in the descriptions of each variety below, and in the table of structure, considerable repetition of location. Almost all Italian red varieties show tannins on the gums, as do all the Bordeaux varieties. That is a lot of varieties! But once again, the key is to combine this knowledge of location of tannins with level and type of tannins to arrive at a logical conclusion. Analysing wines through the lens of acid and tannin structure requires a kind of rewiring of your brain if you have been focused for a long time on flavours. But in my experience, the reward will be far greater consistency in tasting, and stronger justifications for your identifications. It is not easy, but if you want to improve your tasting and acquire a deeper understanding of how varieties work in the glass, it is well worth the challenge.  Tasting Glossary A lot of the descriptions below focus on tasting distinct elements of a wine and their interplay. So it useful to define some of the terms used in this book, whether they derive from the grapes or from winemaking techniques. Note that aspects related to the production of sweet, fortified and sparkling wines are handled in those sections, not here. Acid structure consists of shape, type and level of acidity, as described in the entries on white grape varieties. Acid structure in red wines is a difficult thing to taste for, because the density of the fruit and tannins can obscure acidity. However, in the entries on red varieties, I have done my best to articulate any particularly notable acid structures in red wines. Where there is no comment, you should assume that the acid structure is not particularly prominent or influential in determining the feel of the wine in the mouth. Acidification in a wine (the addition of acidity to the must at fermentation due to lower than desired natural levels) is perceptible by an unexpected freshness of acidity on the finish of a ripe wine, and through a certain hardness of texture, given by low pH. Acidified wines are perhaps best identified by the sense of the acidity being out of place: after rich, ripe, soft fruit a sudden fresh acidity appears. It doesn’t feel natural, and it probably isn’t! Back palate wines are those which seem to come alive on the finish. The focal point of interest and complexity is at the end. An example would be an Italian white variety such as Garganega or Verdicchio, which may not offer considerable fruit at the beginning, but can show subtle aromatic complexity and interest on the finish. By contrast, many more fruity wines show their charms as soon as you put the wine in your mouth: the interest is at the front/beginning. Carbonic maceration makes simple, fruity wines with little structure. This renders them difficult to study using the method outlined in this book. I would contend that they are also very difficult to assess using a flavour/aroma approach, since they express more of their winemaking process (banana, bubble gum aromas) than they do of the variety. Not tasting like their variety and not having the structure of their variety ensures that for study purposes, carbonically macerated wines are challenging!  Some winemakers use a proportion of carbonically macerated fruit to provide a touch of vibrant fruitiness to otherwise conventionally made wines. Fruit is felt on the middle of the tongue and can almost seem to ‘weigh down’ the tongue. I use the middle of the tongue and ‘mid palate’ almost interchangeably. Use of malolactic fermentation, lees and bâtonnage are winemaking techniques which give texture. All of them are perceived in the same location as the fruit: the tongue. Malolactic fermentation softens acidity and gives an overall softer texture to the wine, although it is extremely difficult to be absolutely confident about its usage because the level of malic acid to be converted may be very low in the first place, resulting in little change in the finished wine. It does not change the shape of the acidity. The use of lees (dead yeast cells) gives a light, soapy texture in the mid palate; not enough to be called creamy, but certainly a richer texture than the fruit alone would supply in wines like Muscadet. Bâtonnage gives the most generously rich, creamy texture to the mid palate of these three winemaking techniques, so much so that it can even create a sense of experiencing some thickness or solids on the tongue. Micro-oxygenation is a winemaking technique which involves bubbling tiny amounts of oxygen through a wine prior to bottling. The main purpose is to soften tannins, particularly in powerful red varieties such as Tannat. It is a process designed to make the wine more approachable when young. For our purposes, it is very difficult to assert with absolute confidence that a wine has been subject to ‘micro-ox,’ so to assess the effects of the process on tannin structure may seem a bit redundant. However, just as tannins soften with age, so too do tannins subject to micro-ox. Maybe the best advice is simply to look out for wines whose tannins feel softer than you expect them to be. Just as with an acidified wine (see acidification, above), when the wine features a surprise in one of its components, stop for a moment to consider why it may be. Mid palate refers both to the ‘middle’ of the mouth – the tongue – and to the ‘middle’ of the tasting experience. Fruit is felt particularly strongly during the middle of the time the wine spends on your palate. While of course it is tasted right from the beginning of the tasting experience all the way through the finish, the focal point for experiencing fruit is the middle of that period. Oak tannins are tasted on the gums. Oak tannins may be perceived by a slight grainy, woody hardness, or even, in bad examples, a sensation of wood splinters hitting the gums. They are more rigid and do not share the same suppleness as grape tannins. pH in wine is correlated with how strongly we perceive acidity. Low pH levels usually leave wines feeling fresh and vibrant, while high pH wines feel softer (as one example, Riesling usually has low pH, Gewürztraminer, high pH). Usually, but not always, low pH and high acidity go together, and vice versa. Phenolics in white wines play a similar role to tannins in red wines: they give a drying sensation and contribute a sense of structure. Phenolics are most commonly experienced on the gums and on the finish, where they give a chewy, pithy texture and sometimes a touch of bitterness. They contribute to sapidity (see below). Residual sugar is tasted on the tip of the tongue. For advice on how to estimate the level of residual sugar, see Sweet Wine. Sapidity is the experience of savouriness in the mouth. It is a useful term that I employ occasionally, because it encompasses more than simply ‘acidity’ or ‘freshness’. Jean-Baptiste Lécaillon, winemaker at Champagne Louis Roederer, has noted that sapidity can include aspects as diverse as acidity, salinity, phenolics and minerality. In other words, sapidity covers any non-fruit elements of a wine that contribute to a savoury sensation in the mouth. Since tannins are usually the obvious savoury component of red wines, sapidity is usually discussed in the context of white or rosé wines. In white wines that lack acidity, phenolics or salinity may add a sense of savoury bite or attack, which compensates for the low acidity. Or, in wines like Assyrtiko or Albariño, all these elements are stacked one on top of another to create particularly sapid wines. The concept of sapidity deserves more conversation that it receives in this ever-warming climate; where acidity may be lacking, sapidity is a reminder that other options remain available to the winemaker seeking vibrancy.  Tannins create the drying sensation felt in various textures and locations in the mouth, as described in the entries on red grape varieties. Whole cluster fermentation in red wines (the inclusion of whole bunches of grapes in fermentation vessels, not just berries; also known as the use of stems) can be perceived on the palate, where it increases pH, giving a softer texture and a very slight oiliness. But perhaps more easily, it is perceived on the nose as a lifted, herbal spiciness – a touch green but with some exotic notes too. In order for whole cluster fermentation to be successful, the stems of the bunches must be ripe, so whole cluster usage may be reduced in cooler or wetter vintages. For the wine faults of reduction and volatile acidity, please refer to Wine Faults in Miscellaneous Advice.  Tasting for Grape Variety Introduction In the entries that follow, I discuss the characteristics of wines made from each grape variety through the lens of structure. I supplement structure with discussion of a variety’s construction, other attributes such as texture, body weight and even (whisper it!) flavour. Each entry concludes with a brief discussion of other varieties with which this variety could be confused, as well as producer recommendations. The next few pages explain these elements in more detail. I start with white grape varieties, and with the five grapes that are grown throughout the world and made in numerous styles: Chardonnay, Riesling, Chenin Blanc, Pinot Gris and Sauvignon Blanc. I then move on to white varieties more associated with certain regions. I take the same approach with red wines, where the big five are Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Pinot Noir and Grenache, before addressing other varieties. Structure In the section on white grape varieties, I begin each entry by stating the shape, type and level of acidity inherent to the variety. In the section on red grape varieties, I first state the location, type and level of tannins. Because some of my ideas are abstract and difficult to grasp immediately, I encourage you to read the notes as well as looking at the three summary statements at the top of each entry. Nonetheless, for your convenience I have summarised all the different shapes, locations, types and levels of acidity and tannin in a table in Appendix II (this table is also available for download at www.vintagevariation.com/beyond-flavour). One note on structure: having spent a lot of time thinking about structure in major grape varieties, I increasingly notice that the most celebrated varieties also show the most pronounced structures. For instance, the big five white and red varieties listed above all have well-defined structures, with the arguable exception of Grenache. When tasting the big five varieties in each colour, I find it relatively straightforward to identify and describe their structures. But when trying to describe structures of less frequently seen varieties, I find it much harder; partly due to my lack of familiarity with them, but I submit for consideration the notion that we do not see these varieties as often in part precisely because they don’t have a very pronounced structure. A finely wrought structure is foundational to a great variety. For tips on tasting blends, see Miscellaneous Advice. Construction After summarising the three structural points at the beginning of each entry, I then dedicate one sentence to the ‘construction’ of the variety. This is my attempt to summarise the ‘internal logic’ of a variety: how it works as a wine. In my view, some wines show all the elements of the wine ‘pulling together’ in the same direction. One example would be Sauvignon Blanc, where the vibrant acidity and the aromatic focus create an ebullient, exuberant, vivacious style. Or Pinot Noir, where aromas, acidity and tannins all seem to aspire ‘upwards,’ giving lift and a sense of ethereality. Other wines, however, are more of a ‘tug of war’ between different elements, all in tension with one another. These elements pull in different directions, and the tension they create is what generates the overall taste sensation of the wine. Often, but not always, this takes the form of elements of the wine balancing one another. Fruit and acidity, for instance. But it can also involve sweet and savoury; the phenolic content in certain whites; or tannins in reds. Chardonnay, for example, is a variety that combines quite supple, sometimes even soft or generous fruit, with a firm line of acidity. If the acidity were not so firm and consistent, the fruit might collapse in on itself. But the acidity provides the drive and tension that ensures the wine retains its shape. Or in the case of Nebbiolo, delicate, ethereal fruit sit on top of a powerful tannin structure. It is these elements and their interplay that most define varietal style. Of course, when varieties can be vinified sweet or dry, still or sparkling, trying to summarise a variety’s construction in one sentence may be a fool’s errand. But my point with the construction idea is to try and establish a common denominator in wines made from the same variety, irrespective of origin or wine style. So inevitably there will be many divergences. But I hope you find the construction sentence a useful shorthand way of thinking about how a variety works in the glass.  Notes The bulk of each entry is a discussion of the main features of a variety. This includes further explanation of the structure summarised at the beginning of each entry, and the construction. But it also covers aspects such as flavour, texture, colour: anything that can help with understanding the variety. Please note that I do not cover the rudiments of each variety or where it is grown. If you do not know that Pinot Noir is a light to medium bodied variety, depending on climate, this book is probably not yet for you. My focus is on the granular details of varieties and regions, particularly with reference to structure. I do not attempt to discuss all varieties. The purpose of this book is to help students understand varieties that they are most likely to encounter in their studies: those most widely found on international markets; so I have stuck to mainstream varieties. Likewise with regions of origin: I am aware that Jim Barry is growing Assyrtiko in Australia (and very nice it is, too), but for the purposes of improving your tasting, it is more sensible to focus on that variety’s classic region of origin (Santorini). Illustration Each variety entry includes an ‘illustration.’ I use the term advisedly, because the purpose is to ‘illustrate’ my description of the variety’s structure. It is decidedly not a scientific ‘diagram,’ even in the red wine sections where I indicate where in the mouth you feel the tannins. Instead, the illustrations are simply ways of creatively imagining what I am describing in the text. If you find them helpful, great; if not, please skip over them. In general, though, the white grape variety illustrations are focused on the shape of the acidity, and the red grape ones on the location of the tannins in the mouth, and the type, or texture, of the tannins. You will find a lot of repetition within the illustrations. That is because, for instance, there are many wines with linear acid structures or tannins felt on the gums. I made the choice to tolerate repetition of images rather than ask the reader to turn back to a previous entry each time to view the appropriate illustration. Confusions  Of particular use, I hope, will be the ‘confusions’ section of each variety entry. In my terminology, a ‘confusion’ is another grape variety that could be mistaken for the one currently being discussed. Pinot Noir and Gamay could be confused in a blind tasting, for example. In this section I discuss what I consider to be the most likely confusions for each variety. It cannot be exhaustive: the list would never end. I focus instead on those varieties most likely to be mistaken for the variety in question. Producers For each grape variety, I suggest producers whose wines I believe represent classic examples of their styles and should therefore be good examples of their grape varieties. In addition, the wines should be at least somewhat available on international markets (enough volume is produced and distribution is broad) and the wines should be relatively affordable. That is, almost all suggested producers’ wines are available for under USD $/€60 (in the case of expensive wines like Burgundy or Bordeaux), but much more commonly for under $/€30. Of course, I could simply list the most famous producers in each region. But with rapidly escalating prices, a list of trophy producers is more likely to be aspirational than practical for wine students. Classic, available and affordable are instead my criteria for the recommended producers. These producer suggestions are not, and are not intended to be, exhaustive! Please do not be offended if I have not included your favourite producer. There are simply too many to list for many regions, so do not consider my selections as proscriptive: supplement them with your own. Regional expressions The discussions of how a variety expresses itself in specific, important regions follow the variety description, so that you can consider both. Both variety and regional details are necessary to formulate a thorough appraisal of any wine. I offer more detailed analysis of wine styles from a handful of classic European regions. In these origins (Bordeaux, Burgundy, Rhône, Piedmont and Tuscany), regional identity is conveyed so strongly that it is possible to pin down characteristics of sub-regions, including villages or even single vineyards. The same is possible in numerous other regions not included here, but I have elected to discuss in detail only those areas where sub-regional specifics are likely to be tested in a blind tasting. I intend no offence to omitted regions. Enough prologue. On with the main event!  White Grape Varieties Chardonnay Shape of acidity: linear, horizontal Type of acidity: firm, broad Level of acidity: moderate Construction: supple fruit shaped by firm acidity Notes: Chardonnay is the best white grape variety to start with in a discussion of acid structure in white wine. Why? Because Chardonnay has a particularly recognisable and straightforward structure. It is an object lesson in how to understand the concept. Chardonnay has a powerful, linear acid structure. The acidity is felt consistently throughout the journey of the wine on the palate. This means that the acidity is felt immediately on entry, and remains at the same level throughout, all the way through to the finish. The effect is to create a sense of purpose or direction in the wine; as the acidity courses along, the wine really feels as if it is going somewhere. This sense of direction makes Chardonnay the white wine equivalent of Cabernet Sauvignon. To expand a little further on this idea, I think of Chardonnay as having a horizontal acid structure, because of the consistent perception of the acidity — there are no peaks and troughs of intensity — and because of its ‘straight as an arrow’ sense of direction. This horizontal quality in turn relates to how the acidity interacts with the wine’s body. In some wines (see Sauvignon Blanc), the acidity can remain quite separate from the fruit. Not so with Chardonnay. In Chardonnay, the acidity is completely integrated into the body of the wine. There is no gap between the fruit and the acid; the acidity is enveloped by the fruit, and in turn, the acidity is the motor which propels the fruit through to the finish. Because of this integration, the acidity is generally felt where the fruit is felt: on the tongue. A word on the type of acidity: because it is so linear and consistently felt, I always consider Chardonnay to show firm, broad acidity. Broad in the sense of ‘broad shouldered’ — giving shape to the wine. I use the analogy of a rail in a closet on which the clothes hangers hang. The acidity is the horizontal rail, and the hangers are the other components of the wine: the fruit, the body, the oak etc. All ‘hang’ on to the acidity to find their correct place in the wine; it is the acidity that gives shape to the whole. The level of acidity in Chardonnay varies greatly between growing regions and wine styles, but is most commonly at a moderate level. Visually, I conceptualise the body of Chardonnay as a cylinder, and within it is the consistent, horizontal line of acidity. In terms of construction, Chardonnay tends to show quite supple, generous or soft fruit which provides a contrast to the focused, directional acidity. This contrast between acid structure and fruit is the ‘x factor’ of the variety and central to understanding how Chardonnay works in the mouth. Confusions: Chardonnay has many potential confusions, but by looking for the linear acid structure you can eliminate some (Chenin Blanc, Riesling, Marsanne). Pinot Gris and Semillon have a similar linearity, but the acidity has more energy and vibrancy. Many Italian white varieties also exhibit a linear shape; please see each entry for distinguishing features, but look out for the trademark Italian, pithy, slightly bitter, phenolic content, less common in Chardonnay. Producers: see below under each region of origin. Chardonnay by region Champagne: see Sparkling Wine. White Burgundy White Burgundy is Chardonnay par excellence and manages to achieve a degree of terroir expression in a few villages that is unrivalled in the world. Whether in Chablis or in the Côte d’Or, premier and grand cru wines are the most ripe, concentrated, intense, complex examples of their origins. Chablis Chablis shows Chardonnay’s linear acid structure to full effect. In flavour terms, it shows a chalky minerality and a marked salinity. The fruit is almost an after- thought. I often find a satiny, pearl-like texture to the wines, which is not so strange given that oyster shell is such a common descriptor of the aromas. Look out for honeyed notes with age. Producers: JPB Droin, Bernard Defaix, JC Bessin, William Fèvre, Christian Moreau, EE Vocoret, La Chablisienne. Corton-Charlemagne This famous grand cru appellation gives a particularly expansive wine of real grand cru dimension. Given the large size of the cru, there are many different expressions available. But in general, look out for a powerful structure, a rich texture and concentrated fruit with popcorn and opulent orchard fruits as common flavours. Corton-Charlemagne shows true grand cru body and ripeness but possibly lacks the tension and complexity of the Montrachet grands crus. Producers: Bonneau du Martray, Bouchard Père et Fils, Louis Jadot, Joseph Drouhin. Meursault Traditionally, Meursault is the land of hazelnuts and dairy richness. These days, that style is out of fashion. You are much more likely to find the Coche-Dury style: reductive (see Wine Faults), tight, tense and nervy, an easy confusion with Puligny- Montrachet. The difference? Meursault’s nuttiness means that the fruit is not as pure as in Puligny (or as prominent as in Chassagne). Consider Puligny if you think Meursault, and vice versa. Producers: Bernard-Bonin, Benjamin Leroux, Bouchard Père et Fils, Olivier Leflaive. Puligny-Montrachet  Puligny is the quintessence of fine white Burgundy: linear, taut, pure and particularly mineral (resinous). Puligny wines have a particularly noticeable and powerful Chardonnay linear structure. They are often made in a somewhat reductive manner. Producers: Alain Chavy, Jean Chartron, Olivier Leflaive, Henri Boillot, Jacques Carillon. Chassagne-Montrachet As befits the most southerly of the three great villages of white Burgundy, these are the richest, most opulently-fruited wines of the region. The best examples are stacked with ripe citrus and orchard fruits, and, in body, are particularly round and generous while retaining firm acidity, tension and chalky minerality. Producers: JN Gagnard, Paul Pillot, Michel Niellon, Joseph Colin. St. Aubin and the Côte Chalonnaise St. Aubin is a good value source of classic white Burgundy: tense, concentrated and mineral, perhaps just lacking some of the flair of the more famous villages. The Côte Chalonnaise, just south of the Côte de Beaune, is home to Rully, a good source of ripe but dry Chardonnay in a traditional Burgundy style, albeit at a slightly humbler quality level than the Côte d’Or. Producers: Hubert Lamy, F & D Clair (St. Aubin); Dureuil-Janthial, Jaeger-Defaix (Rully). Maconnais These are generally soft, giving wines appropriate for their more southern origin. The best examples, though, still show some chalky minerality, tension and moderate (c. 13.5%) alcohol. Pouilly-Fuissé is the sub-region of the Maconnais which achieves the greatest quality, and premiers crus have been permitted since the 2020 vintage. Macon produces very good Burgundy, but rarely achieves the precision of the Côte de Beaune: it is riper and rounder. Producers: Verget, Héretiers du Comte Lafon, J. Desjourneys, Guffens-Heynen. USA Within California, a range of styles is available, making it difficult to generalise about them. There is plenty of the rich, oaky, buttery style, especially at the lower end of the price scale. What these wines share with more ambitious Californian styles is fruit concentration: there is never any shortage of that. Examples from Napa can easily top 14.5% alcohol.  There are also many producers making restrained wines in cooler sites in Santa Barbara and the Sonoma Coast, including some who play with reduction (see Wine Faults). All of the above also applies to Oregon, where more restrained, Burgundian styles are being made, albeit with considerable fruit ripeness compared to French examples. Whatever the US origin, in American Chardonnay, look out for fruit ripeness, fruit purity and the fingerprints of the winemaker on the wine (lees, bâtonnage, oak, reduction). Producers: Sandhi, Au Bon Climat (Santa Barbara); Ramey, Hanzell, Lioco (Sonoma); Groth (Napa Valley); Chalone (Monterey); Walter Scott (Willamette Valley, Oregon). Australia Margaret River Chardonnay tends to be a little richer than styles from further east in Victoria, South Australia or Tasmania. This seems to be a winemaking choice rather than being due to climate. Nonetheless, Margaret River can combine the virtues of tension, ripe but not overwhelming fruit and dry minerality. Winemakers in Adelaide Hills, Yarra Valley, Tasmania and elsewhere in the south-eastern part of the country are making less classic new world styles of Chardonnay. Here, more chiselled, ‘slimline’ styles are popular, some of which even imitate Chablis. But the fruit remains considerably riper and a bit softer than Chablis; that is, the acidity showcases the slightly cooler style, but the fruit remains resolutely non-European in its warmth. Producers: Shaw and Smith (Adelaide Hills); Giant Steps (Yarra Valley); Vasse Felix (Margaret River); Tolpuddle (Tasmania). New Zealand Chardonnay could be New Zealand’s best variety, but, in the headlong rush to sate the world’s demand for Sauvignon Blanc, the country has somewhat neglected it. The climate here is quite Burgundian and so is the style: limpid, pure, with a stony minerality and sometimes a touch of reduction. It is very easy to confuse New Zealand Chardonnay with Burgundy, not least because both use French oak; the giveaway is the slight additional fruit ripeness and purity of New Zealand. Producers: Kumeu River (Kumeu); Dog Point (Marlborough); Neudorf (Nelson). For all other countries producing Chardonnay, please refer to the country overview guides in Tasting for Region of Origin, and simply apply to Chardonnay.  Riesling Shape of acidity: vertical Type of acidity: steely Level of acidity: high Construction: acidity is the backbone around which all the other elements of the wine circle Notes: Riesling is another variety with a prominent acid structure. In fact, acidity is the defining feature and organising principle of Riesling; however sweet or dry or floral or petrol-scented the wine is, acidity is the first thing to think about and to comment on. Riesling almost always has high levels of acidity. That is the easiest aspect of Riesling to understand. Riesling is a cool climate variety which flourishes in sites that allow it to ripen slowly, gradually increasing aromatic and flavour complexity. The kinds of sites that allow for this are also ones that preserve acidity very well. Like Chardonnay, Riesling has a very specific shape to its acid structure. Interestingly, it is almost exactly the opposite of Chardonnay. Where Chardonnay has a horizontal acid structure, Riesling has a vertical acid structure. What does that mean? In Riesling, the acidity feels like a vertical bar or pole right through the body of the wine. The other elements of the wine – the fruit, the sugar etc – all circle around it, but the acidity stays firm, immovable and upright. In Riesling, the acidity is the backbone of the wine. Where Chardonnay has a direction and linearity to it that gives a sense of movement, Riesling, by contrast, tends to feel more static on the palate. It is not in such a rush as Chardonnay to get somewhere, because the vertical acidity seems to ‘pin down’ the wine in one spot, like a stake. Another way I think of this vertical acidity is like a fireman’s pole, not just because it is vertical, but because of the quality of Riesling acidity. Riesling has a steely acidity; it seems to glint in the light, like steel. Numerous other analogies spring to mind, however: Riesling’s acidity is like a ship’s anchor, the anchor and chain holding the wine in place; or it is like a maypole, with the dancers being the other elements of the wine, circling around the acidity. To see a rather impressive visualisation along these lines, search on YouTube for Mexico’s Danza de los Voladores, in which, once again, the central pole is analogous to Riesling’s unmoving, vertical acidity. Whatever the growing region, Riesling shows high levels of steely acidity, with a ‘vertical’ structure. The notes below should help define region of origin a little more closely. Confusions: Riesling is usually quite distinctive thanks to its brilliant acidity and luminous fruit. In Alsace, other varieties may show a similar texture, but look out for the vertical acidity (also likely to be at a higher level than other varieties). Austrian Riesling is fruitier than the more savoury Austrian Grüner Veltliner. In sweeter styles, Riesling lacks the funkiness of Loire Chenin Blanc and is very rarely as sweet as Sauternes, Tokaji or other botrytis wines. Producers: see below under each region of origin. Riesling by origin Germany The growing regions of Germany are all quite different, with strong terroir expressions in each. Add to this both Trocken (dry) and sweeter (Prädikat) styles, and the picture quickly becomes complex. But here are some general pointers for identifying regions of origin.  Mosel: in sweeter styles, very light and delicate, with an incredible poise and nervy tension between sugar and acidity: Mosel really walks the tightrope as it maintains the balance between the two. These are particularly precise, pure, ethereal wines. Trocken wines (which in the Mosel are becoming increasingly common) are light (12% alcohol) and precise; they lack the powerful structure of Trocken wines from warmer regions such as Rheingau or Pfalz. Producers: Willi Schäfer, Dr. Loosen, Carl Löwen, Selbach-Oster, Clemens Busch, JJ Prüm, Heinrichshof, Weiser-Künstler. Saar and Ruwer: now officially designated as Mosel, these smaller tributary regions nonetheless have their own identities. Both are even cooler than the Mosel proper. Prädikat wines can be absolutely featherweight and yet packed with intensity of flavour (particularly in the Saar). Trocken wines tend to retain their full permitted allowance of 9g/l of sugar (including at Grosses Gewächs level) to offset their high acidity. Producers: Karthäuserhof, Maximin von Schubert (Ruwer); Zilliken, Peter Lauer (Saar). Nahe: among German Riesling regions, the Nahe is often forgotten by tasters in favour of the better-known Mosel or Rheingau. This is unfortunate, because the wines are equally outstanding. The Nahe is more similar stylistically to Mosel than any other region, but it does not quite have the knife-edge balance or tension of Mosel. It is just a touch rounder and fuller in body. Producers: Dönnhoff, Gut Hermannsberg, Diel, Schäfer-Fröhlich, Krüger-Rumpf. Rheingau: the Rheingau produces Riesling that is more powerful than either the Mosel or the Nahe. Trocken styles can be oily in texture, with stone fruit or even tropical fruit ripeness. Prädikat styles are firmer, broader, less nervy and more concentrated than in either the Nahe or the Mosel. It seems the future for Rheingau will lie in dry wines. Producers: Robert Weil, Leitz, Breuer, Spreitzer, Künstler (a slightly different, richer style from the town of Hocheim). Rheinhessen: some Prädikat wines are still produced here, but the best wines from these warm sites are Trocken. These are powerful wines, stacked full of spice and minerality, and can be intensely dry (especially from the red slate soils above the Rhine near Nierstein). They have a cleaner, less oily texture than the similarly concentrated wines from the Rheingau. Rheinhessen wines show an ambition comparable to the greatest dry whites anywhere. Producers: Wittmann, Gunderloch, Keller, St. Antony.  Pfalz: Pfalz is much warmer than sites further north, so expect fewer Prädikat styles and greater amounts of full bodied, Trocken styles. Some even see new oak. The Pfalz Riesling style is a world away from the tension and poise of the Mosel and lacks the earthiness of Rheinhessen. Instead, the wines can be exuberantly fruity and concentrated – more like Austria’s Wachau or France’s Alsace regions than other parts of Germany. But Pfalz shows more typically German precision and purity of fruit than those regions do. Producers: Bassermann-Jordan, von Winning, Bürklin-Wolf. Outside Germany Alsace: if there is one word to describe Alsace Riesling, it is phenolic. These wines have an abundance of grip and texture on the palate which can even assume the form of creaminess. Alsace Riesling tends to be full bodied, concentrated, often with rather elevated alcohol (14%+ alcohol is not uncommon for grands crus) and, at higher levels, can be a touch off-dry with an oily texture. Alsace Riesling can be quite a baroque wine in the sense of being particularly generous and intense in many aspects: body, fruit, alcohol and texture. And the wines can be – but not always – among the most petrol-scented of all Rieslings. They also have a whiff of slate and/or smokiness, as so many wines from volcanic soils do. They often have a deep colour – presumably due to the skin contact that also gives them the phenolics. The most obvious confusion here would be with Austrian styles, especially those from the Wachau. But the Austrian wines show more precision, energy and more zesty (or tangy) acidity than Alsace. Producers: Hugel, Trimbach, Weinbach, Émile Beyer, Boxler. Austria: Austrian Rieslings more resemble Grüner Veltliner than they do many other styles of Riesling. The acidity is tangy (just like Grüner’s) as opposed to steely. Kamptal (especially) and Kremstal can offer pure, crisp, mineral expressions, while the Wachau tends to be more baroque, rich and oily, or even creamy. Wherever they are from, Austrian Rieslings are always dry, medium- to full- bodied, concentrated wines with some phenolic grip, making Alsace an understandable confusion. But Austrian Riesling is far more energetic than the softer Alsace profile, with bright fruit and tangy acidity. Austrian Riesling may be distinguished from Grüner Veltliner by its different acid structure (consistently present rather than Grüner’s peaks and troughs), and its emphasis on fruit rather than on Grüner’s more savoury, earthy flavour profile. Producers: Alzinger, Nikolaihof (Wachau); Hirsch, Loimer (Kamptal); Nigl (Kremstal). Australia Look out for low pH in Australian Riesling. Low pH (which is different from high acidity, although Australian Riesling certainly does have high acidity) gives a hard mouthfeel which can resemble phenolic grip (but note most Australian Riesling does not undergo skin contact). The petrol note is common across all regions even in a wine’s youth. The standard is for the wines to be fully dry, unless a deliberate choice has been made otherwise. (This is in contrast to New Zealand, where most Riesling has some residual sugar). Australian Riesling generally should not be confused with European examples, because of the typically non-European emphasis on purity of fruit expression. Clarity and primacy of fruit are always pointers towards a non-European origin; this is certainly true with Riesling. Clare Valley: the classic source of Australian Riesling. Clare gives intense lime flavours, a powerful, steely, vertical acid structure, and is always very brisk and clean. Chalky, detailed and intense, and occasionally so dry that the wines are austere. Producers: Grosset, Mount Horrocks, Jim Barry. Eden Valley: a bit softer, with slightly higher pH and lower acidity than Clare. Eden shows more floral and berry notes and is less limey and edgy than Clare. Some wines can have a jasmine scent and more minerality than Clare. Producers: Pewsey Vale, Penfolds Bin 51. Western Australia: these are riper, softer and more fleshy and generous than Clare/Eden with more weight and dimension of flavour, including stone fruit. Western Australian Riesling lacks the intensity of Clare and can show less mid- palate concentration and structure. Producers: Frankland Estate (Frankland River); Leeuwin (Margaret River). USA Washington State in off-dry mode is a Mosel style, but with greater breadth and fruit generosity and not as much elegance. It can be quite appley. Finger Lakes Riesling offers high acidity and aromatic expression but can lack mid-palate concentration. Producers: Ste Michelle (Washington); Hermann J. Wiemer, Dr. Konstantin Frank (Finger Lakes).  Chenin Blanc Shape of acidity: crescendo Type of acidity: bracing Level of acidity: high Construction: powerful acidity cuts through fruit and sugar Notes: Chenin Blanc is one of the more misunderstood white varieties. It is misunderstood largely because tasters often consider it a relatively difficult variety to identify. But au contraire, I believe that if you understand its acid structure, it should be one of the easiest to spot, precisely because it has such an unusual and distinctive acid structure. Chenin has particularly high acidity. Wherever it grows, the acidity does not seem to change. It is always high. And more to the point, it has a particularly bracing quality — many Chenin wines reveal themselves when, after five seconds or so on the palate, you have to spit or swallow because it is almost painful not to. The acidity is so high that it is almost uncomfortable: you find yourself bracing when you experience it! But it is the shape of the acidity that really sets Chenin apart. Chenin Blanc has a crescendo-shaped acid structure. On entry, the wine feels quite soft and a bit structureless (especially in examples with residual sugar). But as the wine remains on the palate, the perception of the acidity increases and increases and increases...until the taster must spit or swallow. Like a crescendo in music, Chenin’s acidity seems to amplify the longer the wine stays in your mouth. Compare to Chardonnay or Riesling, where the acidity is felt immediately when the wine hits the palate and stays constant throughout: this is a totally different experience. Here, the acidity comes on gradually but then dominates the finish.  As an aside, Chenin Blanc justifies its place in the top five great international varieties list not because it is grown in so many places worldwide but because of its outstanding stylistic adaptability, its complexity and its longevity. Stylistically, it is available as still or sparkling, as bone dry or very sweet; the best examples from the Loire can show complexity comparable to any white wine on earth and can age for 50 years or more, especially the sweet examples. It fulfils all the criteria for a so- called ‘noble’ variety. Confusions: Chenin’s crescendo acidity distinguishes it from almost all other white varieties, especially Chardonnay, which is probably the most likely confusion when coming from South Africa. In France, cooler-climate whites such as Chablis might generate confusion, but in addition to the different acid structure, the funky, unusual flavour profile of Chenin should separate it from Chardonnay. Grüner Veltliner also exhibits a rising acidity on the finish, but the tangy, ‘reverberant’ quality of that acidity is very different to Chenin. Albariño is more phenolic. Producers: see below under each region of origin. Chenin Blanc by region France, Loire Vouvray: the most classic rendition of the grape comes from Vouvray. Completely dry wines are a little unusual in Vouvray; even sec styles may contain up to 13g/l of sugar. Vouvray tends to show a powerful acid structure to make a broad-shouldered wine. Vouvray may be Chenin Blanc’s most distinctive expression in flavour terms – almost pungent with bruised apple and saline notes, along with a rasping, chalky minerality on the finish. Sweeter styles can be made with and without botrytis influence. High acidity balances the sweetness, and the sugar seems to bring out the funky, salty, baked apple aromas all the more. Producers: Huet, Vincent Carême, Aubuisières. Montlouis: in terms of sweetness, Montlouis is often a drier wine than Vouvray, and many Montlouis wines are fermented to full dryness. These are often a touch lighter in body than wines from Vouvray, but the best show a lingering chalky minerality and great acid structure. Producers: Taille Aux Loups, Jacky Blot, François Chidaine. Savennières: Savennières is one of the most distinctive but rarely tasted white wines in the world. Fully dry, Savennières is usually fuller bodied and higher in alcohol than Vouvray (it can reach 14%). It can be very austere – almost joyless! – in its dryness. However, age is the cure, and with a few years’ bottle age, Savennières starts to adopt flavours similar to oak influence (although it is usually fermented and aged in stainless steel) and shows a toasty note. The latter point confuses tasters who think it could be Hunter Valley Semillon, but the difference in body weight (heavier), alcohol (higher) and acid structure (crescendo rather than linear) should eliminate confusion. Producers: Baumard, Pierre Bise. There are other Chenin Blanc wines from the Loire, including from Saumur, which tend to be fully dry, taut, but not quite so powerful as the Savennières style. And a final note on Loire Chenin flavour profile: a ‘cidery,’ oxidative note is a feature, not a flaw, of many Loire styles; the naturally appley flavours of the variety occasionally take on that more funky dimension even without the wines being made in a natural, minimal sulphur regime. The cidery note should not be considered the fault of oxidation. South Africa South African Chenin has a richness and roundness reminiscent of new world Chardonnay. It is enough to make you imagine that the wine had undergone malolactic fermentation. But no; like Loire Chenin, South African Chenin does not typically undergo malolactic. So although the wine is soft and rich on entry, the crucial clue is the finish, where the piercing acidity reveals itself, just like in Loire versions.  South Africa Chenin shows an abundant, tropical fruitiness – especially guava – that could not be more different from the savoury, salty earthiness of the Loire. Producers: Badenhorst (Swartland); Raats, Mulderbosch (Stellenbosch).  Pinot Gris Shape of acidity: linear, horizontal Type of acidity: tingly, zesty, humming Level of acidity: moderate Construction: a lively line of acidity provides a counterpoint to the soft fruit Notes: Pinot Gris/Grigio may not seem like an obvious variety to include as one of the five important white grape varieties. But it has all the attributes necessary: stylistic diversity, including dry, off-dry and sweet styles; the capacity for complexity and ageworthiness and a range of growing regions in Europe and beyond. Pinot Gris does not have as prominent an acid structure as the varieties previously discussed, making it a little more tricky to identify – especially in the sometimes neutral Grigio style. But nonetheless, it is possible to make a few generalisations. First, Pinot Gris usually shows medium levels of acidity, though occasionally it is high (e.g. in Alto Adige). It is a mistake to think that Alsatian Pinot Gris has low acidity; usually it is moderate and firm, but sometimes it can be soft (which may be the cause of the misconception). Second, Pinot Gris shows a linear acidity, similar to that of Chardonnay. The acid is perceived as a straight line through the heart of the wine, steady and regular from the beginning to the end. The difference between Chardonnay and Pinot Gris is that Pinot Gris’s acidity has a slightly more tangy or ‘electric’ quality to it. Where Chardonnay’s acidity is firm and undemonstrative, Pinot Gris’s is zesty and alive. It almost hums with life, like when you stand below high-tension electricity pylons — you can hear the wires humming with energy.  Note that Semillon, like Chardonnay and Pinot Gris, has a linear acid structure. But Semillon is identifiable for showing particularly electric acidity, much more so than Pinot Gris. So for varieties with a linear acidity, the ‘electric’ quality of the acidity increases from Chardonnay to Pinot Gris and peaks with Semillon. Finally, whatever the style of the wine, Pinot Gris shows acidity that is well integrated into the body of the wine, as with Chardonnay. The acidity is ‘tucked into’ the body, so as to be quite unobtrusive. The exception are wines from Alto Adige, whose acidity is particularly electric and seems to stick out slightly from the body of the wine. Confusions: Chardonnay may be the most obvious confusion for its supple fruit and linear acidity, but look for additional texture in Pinot Gris when made in the Alsatian style and more lightness of touch than almost all Chardonnay when in Pinot Grigio form. Pinot Gris has more fruit than Pinot Blanc from Alsace. Producers: see below under each region of origin. Pinot Gris by region Alsace: textural richness is a hallmark of Alsace wines in general, and particularly for Pinot Gris. In everyday wines, this expresses itself as a softness and a generosity of fruit. Higher end examples, including grand cru wines, show a viscous, even oily texture. These wines tend to have some residual sugar, and higher alcohols — 14% or more. At all quality levels, Alsatian Pinot Gris tends to show some bitterness on the finish, which helps give the wine bite and freshness. Some examples can be particularly textured with a phenolic content that dries out the gums and cheeks. Occasionally, you find deeply-coloured examples thanks to the pink hue of the grape. Pinot Gris is not an especially aromatic variety, but the best Alsatian examples display ginger and spice and a typical Alsatian smokiness. Producers: Hugel, Trimbach, Weinbach. Northern Italy/Friuli: the Pinot Grigio style here yields wines of limited concentration, complexity and ageworthiness, with some exceptions, usually those which include phenolic content for structure and freshness. But, in general, these are light-bodied, pale-coloured wines with moderate acidity that may feel anywhere from soft to firm. The finish is honeyed. Alto Adige examples may be the most interesting in Italy: here, the acidity is high and focused and gives a vibrancy and life to the wine that Friuli examples can lack. These wines can also be interestingly floral. Producers: Jermann, Venica and Venica (Friuli-Venezia Giulia); Terlano, Elena Walch, Abbazia di Novacella, St. Michael-Eppan (Alto Adige). Oregon: the Oregon style is the Alsatian style. These are full bodied, rich, powerful whites with considerable fruit concentration, but may be distinguished from Alsace by being more purely fruity compared to the earthy, smoky, sometimes funky Alsatian examples. Producers: Eyrie Vineyards, Bethel Heights. New Zealand: these wines tend to show at least some residual sugar, a lifted aromatic profile and sometimes quite a deep colour. This is the Alsatian style, but in slightly cooler climate mode, giving a lighter body, more fruit purity and precision, although the alcohol can still be high (up to 14%). Producers: Greywacke, The Ned, Loveblock (Marlborough); Mt. Difficulty (Central Otago).  Sauvignon Blanc Shape of acidity: spherical Type of acidity: prickly, unintegrated Level of acidity: high Construction: acidity around the edge of the mouth and exuberant aromatics create an outward-facing wine Sauvignon Blanc is a very distinctive variety, and most tasters will recognise it without too much confusion. But while you might intuitively know what it is by the pronounced aromas alone, there are still plenty of other aspects of the wine to discuss. Fortunately, Sauvignon Blanc has a pronounced acid structure. Sauvignon Blanc always has high levels of acidity, like Riesling. What is most interesting about its acidity is its type: it is spiky or prickly. Where a variety like Chardonnay has acidity with no hard edges, Sauvignon Blanc is completely the opposite: here the acidity has a distinctly prickly, spiky sensation and a ‘spherical’ shape. What does it mean to say that Sauvignon’s acidity is ‘spherical’? If you imagine holding a small ball in your mouth, the edges of the ball, touching the edge of your mouth – cheeks, gums, roof and floor of the mouth – is where you physically feel the prickly acidity. ‘Round’ or ‘circular’ could describe it as well, but ‘spherical’ captures the three-dimensional quality of the acidity around all the edges of your mouth. Often you notice Sauvignon’s acidity on the tongue to start with, but it always finishes around the edge of the mouth. A couple of points emerge from this spherical shape to help the taster. First, shape is very helpful in the few examples of Sauvignon Blanc that do not show prickly acidity. Top quality Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé with limited yields tend to smooth out the rough edges of this rather aggressive acidity and make the wine more mellow. But the acidity is still spherical and found around the edges of the mouth. Second, Sauvignon Blanc acidity is perceived distinctly and separately from the body of the wine. That is, the acidity is felt in one part of the mouth (around the edges) while the fruit is felt elsewhere (in the middle of the mouth, on the tongue). This lack of integration of the acidity stands in contrast to Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio, and even Riesling. But once again, this detachment of acidity and fruit only seems to be a function of everyday examples of the variety; when made with high quality fruit, the whole becomes more harmonious and integrated. In terms of construction, Sauvignon Blanc is an ‘outward looking’ wine. That is, the acidity seems to aspire outwards to, and even beyond, the edges of the mouth. This sensation is emphasised further by Sauvignon’s famous aromas, which want to escape the bounds of the glass: they soar upwards. A variety like Chardonnay has a calm, composed integrity, at ease with itself; Sauvignon always seems to aspire beyond itself. The spherical acidity of Sauvignon situates the variety’s structure around the edges of the mouth. And this, in a very different mode, is exactly what we find in the red Bordeaux varieties – to at least some of which Sauvignon Blanc is a genetic relation. That is, the tannins in the two Cabernets and Merlot are felt on the gums. In the case of Cabernet Sauvignon, its famously light mid palate (see further below under Cabernet Sauvignon) is underscored by the considerable tannic heft felt on the gums. Likewise, the high levels of acidity of Sauvignon Blanc felt all around the edges of the mouth can highlight the lightness of fruit in the middle. Even across colours, there is some continuity of construction between the Bordeaux varieties. Confusions: less aromatic varietal Sauvignon Blanc could be confused for similarly prickly, spiky wines with detached acidity, like Muscadet or Aligoté, but Sauvignon has more fruit than both. Sauvignon Blanc-Semillon blends could be confused with richer wines like Chardonnay, but Sauvignon’s high acidity should be the distinguishing feature. Producers: see below under each region of origin. Sauvignon Blanc by region Loire: it is becoming increasingly difficult to generalise about the Loire style, now that many producers seek increasing ripeness and aromatic expression, à la New Zealand. But in general, one still should look for drier, more savoury styles from France. Likewise, the textbook differences between Sancerre and Pouilly- Fumé, the two premium Loire appellations for the variety, never hold in reality as well as you hope they will. In general, though, I find Sancerre a more floral, perfumed, aromatic expression, with many of the best examples being quite chalky; Pouilly-Fumé can be more flinty (I prefer that to ‘smoky’) and more green-fruited (gooseberry) as opposed to floral. Lesser regions of the Loire show strong varietal characteristics (i.e. herbaceous aromas, spiky acidity) but tend to be less concentrated and complex. Producers: André Dezat, Gérard Boulay, Henri Bourgeois, Alphonse Mellot. Bordeaux: it is unfortunate how often tasters forget about this huge production region for Sauvignon Blanc. Most AC Bordeaux Blanc will be made from a majority of Sauvignon Blanc, which ripens easily and with high yields here. These simple wines scarcely show more body than those from further north in the Loire, especially if they are vinified in stainless steel. More ambitious versions will be blended with Semillon, to achieve a medium- bodied wine often with some oak influence. Generally speaking, in all these everyday wines there is less varietal expression than in the Loire. The Sauvignon Blanc here is not quite as pure as in the Loire, and it can become a little ‘sweaty’ smelling. In general, though, unblended versions should be crisp and aromatic. Blended white Bordeaux has an enviable virtue: it seems to achieve complexity quite easily. These are aromatic wines with ample, zesty, fresh fruit but with a noticeably dry, savoury finish – a winning combination. The Semillon offers texture and fruit in the middle of the palate, while the Sauvignon acidity is felt around the edge. Higher-end dry versions, especially from Graves and Pessac-Léognan, are likely to include some Semillon and at least some new oak. Semillon adds texture and body. In premium examples, Semillon also brings the creamy textural richness and smoky, lanolin notes that make these wines such good candidates for ageing in French oak. The Semillon counteracts the additional richness by supplementing the acidity with a jolt of electricity: these are very bright, lively wines in spite of their weight (see further under Semillon). Producers: Marjosse, Bauduc, Grand Village (Entre-Deux-Mers/Bordeaux); Clos Floridène, Carbonnieux, Couhins-Lurton, Petit Haut Lafitte (Graves/Pessac-Léognan). For Sauternes, see Sweet Wines. New Zealand: this is the light bodied, high-acid Loire style but with even more perfume. The aromas here lean towards the tropical and away from gooseberry. There are good oaked versions which offer some additional smoky depth. Producers: Greywacke, Dog Point, Seresin, Villa Maria (Marlborough). Chile: the most notable feature of Chilean Sauvignon Blanc is that the naturally herbaceous character of the variety is exaggerated by the ‘green,’ pyrazine style that is typical of so many Chilean wines. In other words, you are putting ‘green on green,’ so these wines can be very pungently herbaceous indeed. In terms of fruit profile, they show more restraint and fewer tropical notes than New Zealand. Producers: Errázuriz, Leyda, de Martino, Arboleda, Concha y Toro. USA: while there are many unoaked versions from the US, the most well- known style is Fumé Blanc. This should be easy enough to identify by the smoky oak notes, but because of the generally warmer climate from which the wines come, the acidity can be subdued and the aromas not very herbaceous. These wines can lean more towards stone fruits in flavour and show more mid-palate texture and richness. This is a good opportunity to look for the spherical acidity as the key to the variety. Producers: Robert Mondavi Fumé Blanc, Groth, Spottswoode, Massican (Napa Valley).  Melon de Bourgogne (Muscadet) Shape of acidity: supernova Type of acidity: jagged, sharp Level of acidity: high Construction: lees and fruit in the middle of the palate balance acidity around the edge Notes: Structurally, Melon de Bourgogne’s closest analogue is Sauvignon Blanc, with which it shares high levels of sharp, spiky, jagged, tart acidity that is often disconnected from the body of the wine. But there is more of a dynamism to the acidity of Melon than that of Sauvignon. In Muscadet, the acidity seems to ‘explode’ outwards. It is perceived at first on the tongue but then expands outwards to the edge of the mouth. This is what I call the ‘supernova’ effect, and it is a distinctive attribute of this variety. Melon also diverges from Sauvignon aromatically — Muscadet is a neutral variety, and also in its winemaking, where it is commonly matured on its lees. Muscadet’s ageing sur lie adds a creamy texture felt on the mid palate and a bit of additional body weight, balancing the high acidity. Without this additional richness, Muscadet would be an even lighter wine than it already is. Muscadet has a dry, salty finish. Confusions: less aromatic examples of Sauvignon Blanc share some features of Melon de Bourgogne discussed above, but in addition to the marginally different acid structure, Sauvignon simply has more fruit. Chablis shows a linear acid structure, and Aligoté is more powerfully structured. Albariño has more fruit