Basic Principles of Biological Chemistry (40-81) PDF

Carbohydrates: Disaccharides Disaccharides are formed by two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond (a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another...

Carbohydrates: Disaccharides Disaccharides are formed by two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond (a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.. Example: Sucrose (table sugar) Formed by one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose joined by a glycosidic linkage: http://hs-science-integrated.ism-online.org/2012/04/18/the-molecules-of-life/  Carbohydrates: Disaccharides Example: Maltose (beer sugar) Formed by two molecules of Glucose: http://lactosesintolerances.blogspot.ca/2013/05/lactose-disaccharide.html  Carbohydrates: Disaccharides Example: Lactose (Milk sugar) Formed by one molecule of Galactose and one molecule of Glucose. http://lactosesintolerances.blogspot.ca/2013/05/lactose-disaccharide.html  Glycoside Linkages α glycoside bond: bond between two alpha sugars β glycoside bond: bond between two beta sugars http://image.wistatutor.com/content/feed/tvcs/untitled_45.JPG  Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates. Made up of chains of monosaccharides that are linked together by glycosidic bonds. Ideal storage molecules for energy. Large and insoluble in water. Fold into compact shapes. Easily convert to sugars when needed. http://www.nutrientsreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Polysaccharides-structure.jpg  Polysaccharides: Glycogen Glycogen: branched polysaccharide found in nearly all animal cells and in certain protozoa and algae. Mainly stored in the liver and muscles of humans and other vertebrates. Main form of stored carbohydrate in the body, acting as a reservoir of glucose. http://www.chemistryland.com/ElementarySchool/BuildingBlocks/BuildingOrganic.htm  Polysaccharide: Cellulose Fully permeable to water and solutes Ideal for allowing water and solutes into and out of the cell. Most abundant organic compound on Earth. About 33% of all plant matter and more than 50% of total organic carbon on planet http://www.nature.com/news/2001/010115/full/news010118-3.html  Polysaccharide: Chitin Chitin: unbranched polysaccharide, similar in structure to cellulose. Instead of (-OH), chains have (–NH-CO-CH3). Primarily found in the cuticles of arthropods, with smaller amounts being found in sponges, mollusks and annelids. Also in the cell walls of most fungi and in some http://www.swicofil.com/products/055chitosan.html green algae.  Lipids Lipids are a large class of organic compounds that are generally insoluble in water (hydrophobic). They do dissolve in nonpolar organic solvents, like chloroform, acetone or benzene. Biologically important lipids include: fats (triglycerides) phospholipids Waxes Steroids wa http://bio1151b.nicerweb.net/Locked/media/ch05/  Lipids Fats and oils are made from two kinds of molecules: Glycerol 3 carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group on each of its carbons 3 fatty acids hydrocarbon chains with a carboxylic acid on the end Since there are three fatty acids attached, these are known as triglycerides. http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/LOP/ResearchPublications/prb0521-e.htm Lipid Structure Tail: long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain Head: hydrophilic carboxyl group http://ediblesciencefaire.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/fatty-acid-structure1.png Lipids in Soap In soap, fatty acids tails are soluble in oily dirt and their heads are soluble in water. Forms a micelle around the dirt/grease. However, when the head end is attached to glycerol to form a fat, that whole molecule is hydrophobic.  Lipids Saturated, mono-unsaturated, and poly- unsaturated refers to the number of hydrogens attached to the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids as compared to the number of double bonds between carbon atoms in the tail. “Saturated with hydrogen” http://aaccuratequote.com/fatty-acid-chemical-structure Saturated Fats Saturated fats In triglycerides, fatty acids contain the maximum possible amount of hydrogens Fairly straight in chain and packed closely together (solid at room temperature) Unsaturated fats Oils, mostly from plant sources, have some double bonds between some of the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, causing bends or “kinks” in the shape of the molecules.  Phospholipids General structure: Glycerol Fatty acid Phosphate group + simple organic group (usually choline – essential nutrient) http://www.freethought-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11572&garpg=41  Phospholipid Bilayer Cell membranes are formed by a two-layered arrangement of phospholipid molecules Hydrophobic lipid ends facing inward and the hydrophilic phosphate ends facing outward. All biological membranes are made of this same basic structure. http://www.freethought-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11572&garpg=41  Thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around all cells. The cell membranes of almost all organisms and many viruses are made of a lipid bilayer, as are the nuclear membrane surrounding the cell nucleus, and membranes of the membrane-bound organelles in the cell. The lipid bilayer is the barrier that keeps ions, proteins and other molecules where they are needed and prevents them from diffusing into areas where they should not be. Lipid bilayers are ideally suited to this role, even though they are only a few nanometers in width, because they are impermeable to most water-soluble (hydrophilic) molecules. Bilayers are particularly impermeable to ions, which allows cells to regulate salt concentrations and pH ~Wikipedia  Lipids: Steroids Steroids: structures totally different from the other classes of lipids. Ring system of three cyclohexanes and one cyclopentane in a fused ring system. http://www.nbs.csudh.edu/chemistry/faculty/nsturm/CHE452/21_Adrenal%20Steroid17.htm Lipids: Steroids Steroids have a large number of carbon-hydrogen bonds, which make steroids non-polar. Steroids include such well known compounds as cholesterol, sex hormones, birth control pills, cortisone, and anabolic steroids.  In animals, all steroids are derived from one common precursor, lanosterol, which is modified by biosynthetic, chemical reactions to produce other steroids. Steroids serve a wide variety of functions in the body. For example, cholic acid (a bile acid) is used to help transport and excrete fats from the liver, while androsterone (a steroid hormone) activates protein synthesis in muscle. Steroids: Cholesterol Formed in brain tissue, nerve tissue, and the blood stream. It is the major compound found in gallstones and bile salts. http://depann2000.com/gallery/temp/cholesterol-molecule-structure  Steroids: Cholesterol Cholesterol can deposit on the walls of blood vessels. These deposits harden and obstruct the flow of blood. This condition, known as atherosclerosis, results in various heart diseases, strokes, and high blood pressure. http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/atherosclerosis-19012 Steroids: Sex Hormones Primary male hormone: Testosterone Promotes the normal development of male genital organs and is synthesized from cholesterol in the testes. Promotes secondary male sexual characteristics such as deep voice, facial and body hair. Steroids: Sex Hormones Two females hormones: Estrogen and Progesterone Together, they regulate changes occurring in the uterus and ovaries, and the menstrual cycle. Estrogen is synthesized from testosterone by making the first ring aromatic which results in double bonds, the loss of a methyl group and formation of an alcohol group. Anabolic Steroids Mimic the effects of testosterone Increase protein synthesis Develop secondary male characteristics Are sometimes used therapeutically, but can be harmful long- term. Lipids: Waxes Wax: a simple lipid consisting of an ester of a long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid. Alcohol may contain from 12-32 carbon atoms. Found in nature as coatings on leaves and stems. Bees wax ➔ Proteins Proteins: natural polymer molecules Most important class of biochemical molecules. Basis for the major structural components of animal and human tissue. Types of Proteins Structural Enzymatic Transport Contractile and motor function Receptors Defense Storage (Energy) Hormonal  Proteins Proteins are polymers composed of monomers called amino acids (2-1000s). Amino acid contain: An alpha carbon base amine group ( -NH2) acidic carboxyl group ( -COOH) hydrogen atom Side chain (varies based on amino acid) http://www.freethought-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11572&garpg=41  Proteins R groups: affect the way a proteins amino acids interact with one another, and how a protein interacts with other molecules. http://www.freethought-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11572&garpg=41  Proteins While there are 100s of different amino acids, most organisms use only 20 to build proteins. Amino acids can be linked together by peptide bonds (covalent bonds) Dipeptide: two amino acids linked together Polypeptide: more than two. http://www.drgpdreamdot.com/protein/  Proteins http://www.freethought-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11572&garpg=41 Protein Structure  Primary Structure refers to the order of the amino acids in the peptide chain. Secondary Structure is the arrangement of hydrogen bonds between the peptide nitrogens and the peptide carbonyl oxygens of different amino acid residues. Tertiary Structure three-dimensional arrangement of a polypeptide chain that has assumed its secondary structure. Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues may stabilize tertiary structure. Quaternary Structure arrangement of the subunits of a protein that has more than one polypeptide chain. Denaturation Denaturation is the disruption and possible destruction of both the secondary and tertiary structures. Disrupts alpha-helix and beta sheets and uncoils protein. Denaturation is not strong enough to break the peptide bonds in the primary structure (sequence of amino acids).  Enzymes A living system controls its activity through enzymes. A protein molecule that is a biological catalyst (speed up reactions). http://katrinalewis.edublogs.org/ 3 Characteristics of Enzymes 1. Basic function of an enzyme is to increase the rate of a reaction. Speed up cellular reactions almost a million times faster. Unaffected by reactions. 2. Act specifically with only one reactant (called a substrate) to produce products. 3. Enzymes can speed up the same chemical reaction going in the opposite directions. AB → A + B A + B → AB Enzymes Most biological reactions need the input of energy to get started, called the activation energy. Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a reaction to occur by forming temporary associations with the substrates. Without enzymes, most metabolic reactions would be too slow to maintain life.  Enzymes Proteins with a groove or pocket which forms the active site. Active site is where the substrate fits and the reaction is catalyzed. Binds to specific substrates Like a “Lock to a Key” http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3312/3391801/blb1406.html  Nucleic Acids Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Consist of long chains of nucleotides which consist of: A pentose (5 C sugar) A phosphate group An organic (nitrogenous) base http://bio1151b.nicerweb.net/Locked/media/ch05/  Nucleic Acids http://bio1151b.nicerweb.net/Locked/media/ch05/