Gender and Race in IR - BAES Lecture 8 PDF
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University of Bologna
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This is a lecture on gender and race in international relations. It examines the influence of gender and race on global politics, economics, and international power structures. It also explores the concept of intersectionality and its role in understanding global systems of power and inequality. The lecture uses examples of historical and contemporary events to illustrate the dynamic interaction of these factors.
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Gender and race in IR Agenda 1. How gender shape global politics 2. Race and global politics 3. Intersectionality 2 How gender and race influence international politics? 3 Examples Leadership: Representation of women and racial minorities in positions of global...
Gender and race in IR Agenda 1. How gender shape global politics 2. Race and global politics 3. Intersectionality 2 How gender and race influence international politics? 3 Examples Leadership: Representation of women and racial minorities in positions of global power Wars: Role of gendered and racialized tropes in justifying military interventions (e.g., "saving women" narratives in Afghanistan) Global Economy: Impact of feminized labor and racial inequalities in global supply chains 4 1. Gender in IR Defining Sex and Gender: 1.Sex: Biological differences (e.g., male/female based on reproductive anatomy). 2.Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and norms associated with masculinity and femininity. 5 Masculinity and Femininity as Relational Constructs: 1. Masculinity and femininity are not inherent traits but relational constructs that society creates and reinforces. 2. These constructs define what is considered "appropriate" behavior for men and women, often setting up masculinity as dominant and femininity as subordinate. 3. In international relations (IR), these constructs influence who is seen as a "natural" leader who is a “natural” leader? 6 Leadership is often associated with traits labeled as "masculine," such as: Rationality: Emphasizing logic and objective decision-making. Strength: Physical and emotional resilience, assertiveness. Courage: Willingness to take risks and make decisive actions. Feminine traits—like emotionality, nurturing, or collaboration—are often marginalized as weak or inappropriate for leadership roles. 7 Implications for IR This bias perpetuates gender disparities in global leadership. Women leaders are often judged against male standards of leadership and must "perform" masculinity to gain acceptance. The relational nature of these constructs means that "feminine" traits are only weak in contrast to "masculine" traits, which are idealized as strong. This dynamic reinforces the exclusion of women and non-dominant masculinities from power structures. 8 9 As the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher altered her voice to lower its pitch. Why? In the context of a male-dominated political system, higher-pitched voices (associated with femininity) were perceived as less authoritative or serious. Effect: Thatcher’s voice training enabled her to project traits society associated with masculinity—assertiveness and rationality—helping her navigate a political environment biased against feminine expressions. This example underscores the relational construct of masculinity and femininity: Thatcher had to adopt masculine norms to overcome the perceived deficiencies of femininity in leadership 10 Another example: Militarism and Patriotism in IR Militarism exemplifies hegemonic masculinity in IR. Soldiers are trained to embody toughness, discipline, and the willingness to sacrifice, which are culturally celebrated as masculine virtues. Patriotism often invokes imagery of the "just warrior" defending the "beautiful soul" (a feminized representation of the nation or its vulnerable citizens). This reinforces the perception of men as protectors and women as needing protection. For instance, in colonial and postcolonial contexts, men from dominant powers were often portrayed as rational defenders of civilization, while colonized men were feminized 11 Why these concepts matter in IR? Gendered Leadership: The framing of leadership through masculine ideals affects global decision-making, perpetuating gender disparities. Hegemonic Masculinity in Policy: Policies driven by militarism and economic dominance reflect hegemonic masculinity, often sidelining alternative approaches like diplomacy or cooperative economic models. Relational Framework: Viewing masculinity and femininity as relational constructs helps uncover how power is distributed and maintained in global systems, challenging traditional IR theories that overlook gender dynamics Division of labor in the global economy 12 Gender and the Global Economy Sexual Division of Labor: Refers to the historical and structural division of work into "male" and "female" spheres: Male Labor: Often associated with physically demanding or higher-paid formal jobs. Female Labor: Tied to caregiving, domestic work, and low-wage sectors like garment production. 13 This division is not natural but socially constructed and sustained by patriarchal norms and economic policies. In globalization, this division takes on an international scale, where women are overrepresented in precarious, low-paid, and informal labor sectors. 14 Feminized Labor in Globalization Certain industries (e.g., textiles, electronics, domestic care) disproportionately employ women due to perceptions of "female" traits such as docility, patience, and manual dexterity Feminized labor often entails: Lower wages compared to male-dominated industries. Poor job security and working conditions. Lack of union representation or legal protections. Example: Women working in export-processing zones (EPZs) are often denied maternity leave or benefits, as companies prioritize profit over workers' rights 15 Reproductive vs. Productive Economies Reproductive Economy: Encompasses unpaid work like child-rearing, caregiving, cooking, and cleaning—tasks essential for sustaining life and the workforce. Women disproportionately bear the burden of reproductive labor, often alongside formal employment, resulting in a "double burden." This labor remains undervalued and invisible in economic metrics like GDP, despite its foundational role in the global economy. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, women’s unpaid care work increased significantly, further marginalizing their economic participation. 16 Productive Economy: Refers to formal, wage-earning activities recognized in traditional economic models. The productive economy relies on the reproductive economy; without care and social reproduction, the workforce cannot function. Example: A garment worker’s ability to labor depends on her reproductive role at home, such as caring for children and ensuring household stability. 17 Tensions Between the Two Economies: The undervaluation of reproductive labor exacerbates gender inequality. Policies like flexible working hours or childcare support aim to address this divide but are often inadequately implemented or exclude marginalized women gender inequalities 18 19 Another debate in IR and gender concerns the role of IOs Are International Organizations Addressing Gender Inequalities Effectively? 20 United Nations efforts 21 Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Agenda: Initiated with UNSC Resolution 1325 (2000), emphasizing: Women’s participation in conflict resolution and peacebuilding. Prevention of gender-based violence in conflict. Achievements: Highlighted the gendered impacts of war. Established frameworks for including women in peace processes. Critiques: Implementation remains uneven across countries. Women are often depicted primarily as victims, not agents of change. 22 Broader criticisms Tokenism: Inclusion of women is often symbolic, without substantive shifts in decision-making power. Focus on Formal Equality: Efforts tend to prioritize legal reforms, which do not always translate into real-world changes, especially for economically or socially marginalized women. Neglect of Structural Inequalities: Policies may fail to address systemic issues like the undervaluation of reproductive labor or intersectional oppression. 23 Open challenges Addressing the reproductive economy explicitly by: Recognizing and compensating unpaid care work. Expanding access to affordable childcare and eldercare. Bridging the implementation gap in international frameworks by: Monitoring compliance with gender equality goals. Supporting grassroots initiatives that address the needs of marginalized women. 24 Race and IR 25 Defining race Race as a Social Construct: Race is not a biological fact but a social and political categorization tied to power dynamics. It is used to ascribe attributes, competencies, and value to groups based on perceived physical characteristics, such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. These ascriptions are arbitrary and have shifted across time and place, demonstrating that race is not fixed but socially constructed. 26 Historical roots Race became a central tool for justifying imperial conquest and colonial rule During the colonization of the Americas, European powers framed indigenous peoples as "savages," using this narrative to legitimize land dispossession and genocide. The transatlantic slave trade racialized Africans as inferior, using pseudo-scientific ideas of biology to justify slavery. The concept of Blackness was associated with servitude, inferiority, and dehumanization, contrasting with whiteness, which symbolized civilization and superiority. 27 This "hierarchization" of humanity created enduring global structures of inequality that framed white Europeans as superior to non-Europeans. For instance, in the Americas, Indigenous populations were often depicted as "uncivilized" and incapable of self-governance. This racialized narrative justified European land theft and violent assimilation policies. 28 Race as an ordering principle Central to Colonial Administration: Race hierarchies underpinned the political, economic, and social structures of colonial empires: Segregationist policies kept racial groups physically and economically divided. Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans were subjected to forced labor and denied political rights. These hierarchies were presented as natural and reinforced through colonial governance and education systems. 29 Not just in the past … Contemporary racial inequalities: Global institutions Global economy Global health Migration 30 Persistence in Global Institutions Race continues to operate as an ordering principle in global institutions today The power structures of international institutions like the United Nations (UN) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reflect the dominance of historically colonial powers Decision-making power is concentrated in countries that were colonizers, marginalizing voices from the Global South 31 Global economy (1) Modern trade systems often replicate colonial power dynamics: Wealthier, predominantly white nations control global trade rules, disadvantaging countries in the Global South. For example, unfair subsidies and tariffs favor agricultural products from the Global North over those from Africa or Latin America. 32 Global economy (2) Global Supply Chains:Companies outsource production to the Global South, where racialized workers face poor wages and unsafe conditions. Example: Garment workers in Bangladesh, primarily women of color, labor in exploitative conditions to produce goods for multinational brands. 33 Global health Inequities in access to healthcare and vaccines reflect colonial legacies: During the COVID-19 pandemic, wealthier nations hoarded vaccines while many African and Asian countries faced severe shortages. The framing of the Global South as dependent perpetuates racialized stereotypes of incompetence. 34 Migration policies Immigration policies often privilege individuals from wealthier (and predominantly white) countries while criminalizing migrants from the Global South. Example: Refugees from war-torn regions in Africa or the Middle East face harsher restrictions than European migrants. 35 3. Intersectionality It describes how various forms of oppression (e.g., race, gender, class, and nationality) intersect and overlap, creating unique experiences of marginalization and privilege. This approach moves beyond analyzing individual categories (e.g., race or gender in isolation) to examine how they interact dynamically within systems of power In the context of international relations, intersectionality reveals how global political and economic systems produce and sustain inequalities that disproportionately affect marginalized groups 36 Key Principles: Multiplicity: Individuals are situated within multiple overlapping systems of power and oppression. Relationality: These systems (e.g., patriarchy, capitalism, colonialism) do not act independently but reinforce one another. Context-Specific: Intersectional oppression varies depending on historical, cultural, and geographical contexts. 37 Example (1): Care Workers Migrant women from the Global South often fill roles as domestic and care workers in wealthier nations, exemplifying the intersection of gender, race, and class These workers are racialized as "naturally suited" for caregiving due to stereotypes about their gender and ethnicity. Challenges: Poor working conditions. Lack of labor protections. Separation from their families as they care for others. Structural Impact: This reinforces global hierarchies where wealthier nations rely on the exploitation of racialized and gendered labor from poorer countries 38 Example (2): Climate change Climate-induced displacement disproportionately impacts women and indigenous peoples, who are already marginalized by gender and racial inequalities For example, women in rural, impoverished communities face increased burdens in securing food and water during environmental crises. 39 Example (3): War and conflict In conflict zones, women of color are often both targets of violence (e.g., sexual violence as a weapon of war) and overlooked in peace-building efforts Intersectionality explains why international humanitarian interventions must account for the compounded vulnerabilities of these populations. 40 Overall, Intersectionality broadens the scope of IR by: Recognizing how global structures (e.g., international institutions, trade systems) reinforce inequalities at the intersection of race, gender, and class Addressing how global phenomena like migration, climate change, and economic globalization impact different groups in unequal ways 41 Wrap-up Gender and Race as Power Structures in IR: Both gender and race shape global political and economic systems, influencing who has access to resources, representation, and rights. These power structures intersect with others like class and nationality, creating complex layers of privilege and oppression. Deeper understanding of how gender and race intersect within global systems, emphasizing the relevance of these issues to international relations EVALUATION! 42 www.unibo.it