BSC 108 University of Alabama Study Guide for Exam 2 PDF

BSC 108 University of Alabama Study Guide for Exam 2 Modules 5, 6, 7, 8 Module 5: Essential Biology chapter 7 1. Know that the process of photosynthesis captures light energy from the sun and converts it to chemical energy stored in sugars and...

BSC 108 University of Alabama Study Guide for Exam 2 Modules 5, 6, 7, 8 Module 5: Essential Biology chapter 7 1. Know that the process of photosynthesis captures light energy from the sun and converts it to chemical energy stored in sugars and other organic molecules. 2. Be able to write the general equation for photosynthesis from memory: water + carbon dioxide + light energy → glucose + oxygen 6H2O + 6CO2 + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 3. Know that water enters plants through their roots and carbon dioxide enters plants through pores in the leaf called stomata. 4. Know that photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts; know the structure of a chloroplast (stroma, thylakoid membrane, grana, inner and outer membranes). 5. Know that chlorophyll molecules are embedded in the inner thylakoid membrane and that the primary function of plant pigments is to absorb solar energy. 6. Be able to compare and contrast the light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light independent) reactions; understand how the light reactions use the energy of sunlight to make the energy-storing compounds ATP and NADPH; understand how the Calvin cycle reactions use the energy stored by the light reactions to make G3P, which can be used to make glucose. 7. Understand that leaves are green because chlorophyll molecules absorb violet-blue and red light but reflect or transmit green-yellow light. 8. Be able to list the processes of the light dependent reactions: chlorophyll absorbs solar energy and ejects an electron, which is passed down an electron transport chain, and water is split, releasing O2. 9. Be able to list the requirements for the light dependent reactions: H2O, ADP, and NADP+; be able to list the products of the light reactions: O2 and the energy-storing compounds ATP and NADH. 10. Be able to list the requirements for the Calvin cycle reactions: ATP, NADPH, CO2, a five-carbon sugar called RuBP, and the enzyme rubisco. 11. Know that carbon dioxide is fixed during the Calvin cycle; know that the product of the Calvin cycle is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), which can be used to make glucose. 12. Understand how C4 photosynthesis is different from C3 (traditional) photosynthesis; know that C4 photosynthesis is an adaptation for hot and dry weather; be able to give an example of a C4 plant (i.e. sugar cane, corn) 13. Understand that photosynthesis is the process that stores energy in the form of glucose and that cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from glucose. Module 6: Essential Biology chapter 6 1. Know that an oxidation reaction involves the loss of electrons while a reduction reaction involves the gain of electrons. 2. Know that glucose from food is converted to CO2, releasing energy that is used to produce ATP in the process of cellular respiration. 3. Be able to write the overall molecular formula for cellular respiration from memory: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP 4. Know the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration; know which stage of cellular respiration requires oxygen (the electron transport chain). 5. Know that cellular respiration takes place in mitochondria of all eukaryotic organisms; know the structure of a mitochondrion. 6. Know the stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and the electron transport chain; know where they take place in the cell; know which stage produces the most ATP. 7. Understand that glycolysis splits a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. 8. Know that the citric acid cycle completes the breakdown of glucose, producing ATP and NADH. 9. Know that NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle deliver electrons to the electron transport chain, where ATP and H2O are produced; know that the majority of ATP molecules are produced here. 10. Understand how ATP can be synthesized without oxygen by fermentation (glycolysis); know that this is also called anaerobic respiration; know that fermentation produces ethanol in yeast cells and lactic acid in muscle cells. Module 7: Essential Biology chapter 8 1. Know that cell reproduction can function in reproduction, growth and development, and repair and renewal. 2. Know that DNA molecules are combined with proteins to form chromatin, the substance of chromosomes. 3. Understand that the cell cycle is the life of a cell from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells; that the cell cycle consists of interphase and mitosis. 4. Know that DNA replicates BEFORE cell division (mitosis), during the S or synthesis phase of interphase. 5. Know that a duplicated chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, joined at the centromere. 6. Be able to list the stages of interphase: G1 phase, synthesis (S), and G2 phase; know what cellular events occur during each phase. 7. Understand that cell division consists of mitosis (division of the nucleus) and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm). 8. Understand how the spindle forms and how assembly of its microtubules is directed by the centrosome; know the function of the spindle is to help separate sister chromatids in mitosis by attaching to the centromere of a duplicated chromosome and pulling sister chromatids to opposite poles of the cell. 9. Be able to list the 4 stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase; know exactly what cellular events occur during each phase. 10. Know that the cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system that directs the sequential events of the cycle; know that there are three checkpoints (G1 checkpoint, G2 checkpoint, M checkpoint) where a cell stops itself from dividing if there was an error to prevent cancer and abnormal cells. 11. Know that cancer is an error in the cell cycle in which a cell gets past a checkpoint and divides uncontrollably, forming a tumor. 12. Know that reproductive cells (sperm and egg cells) are called gametes and all other cells are called somatic cells (body cells). 13. Know that homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes composing a pair, one from the mother and one from the father; know that homologous chromosomes have the same characteristics. 14. Know that X and Y are the sex chromosomes and that they determine an individual’s sex; know that the other chromosomes are called autosomes. 15. Be able to tell the difference between haploid cells (n, one set of 23 chromosomes) and diploid cells (2n, two sets of 23 chromosomes). 16. Understand the stages of the human life cycle; know that gametes (sperm and egg cells, also known as reproductive cells) are haploid, that they are produced during meiosis, and that they fuse during fertilization, producing a diploid zygote (fertilized egg); know that mitosis and development creates a multicellular diploid adult from this zygote. 17. Know that in males, meiosis occurs in the testes as part of spermatogenesis (sperm production); in females, meiosis occurs in the ovaries as part of oogenesis (production of eggs). 18. Understand that meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid by dividing a diploid parent cell into 4 haploid daughter cells in two consecutive divisions. 19. Know the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I and cytokinesis) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II and cytokinesis); know exactly what cellular events happen during each stage (Fig 9.3). 20. Know that DNA replicates BEFORE meiosis I, during the S or synthesis phase of interphase; know that the DNA doesn’t replicate again before meiosis II. 21. Know that meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes and meiosis II separates sister chromatids. 22. Be able to compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis; understand how synapsis and crossing over, tetrads at the spindle equator in metaphase, and separation of homologues in meiosis I distinguish it from mitosis. 23. Know the three origins of genetic variation among offspring and exactly how they occur (independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, and random fertilization); know that genetic variation is an advantage of sexual reproduction. Module 8: Essential Biology chapter 9 1. Understand the following terms and how they apply to Mendel’s pea plant experiments: trait, true-breeding, hybridization, alleles, dominant, recessive. 2. Understand the techniques that Mendel used to cross pea plants; know the function of a testcross. 3. Know the three generations that Mendel studied and the differences between them: the P generation, the F1 generation, and the F2 generation. 4. Understand why Mendel saw a 3:1 ratio of tall and short plants in the F2 generation of his testcross. 5. Understand the four concepts that make up Mendel’s model: 1. Alternative versions of genes (now called alleles) account for variation in inherited characters 2. For each trait, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent 3. If the two alleles differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism’s appearance and the other allele (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect 4. The law of segregation: that the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes. 6. Know the difference between homozygous and heterozygous; know the difference between phenotype and genotype. 7. Be able to draw a Punnett square for a simple cross between two organisms. 8. Know the law of independent assortment, which states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. 9. Know that most genes exist in populations in more than two allelic forms (multiple alleles). 10. Know the difference between incomplete dominance (where offspring can have an appearance in between the phenotype of the two parents) and codominance (where offspring can display two dominant phenotypes at the same time). 11. Understand the ABO blood group example of multiple alleles controlling a trait; be able to predict a child's blood type based on his or her parents' blood types using a Punnett square. 12. Understand sex-linked inheritance, using colorblindness as an example.