Aviation - Night Operations PDF

Chapter 12 Night Operations Introduction Pilots rely more on vision than on any other sense to orient themselves in flight. The following visual factors contribute to flying performance: good depth perception for safe landings, good visual acuity to identify terrain features and obstacles in the fl...

Chapter 12 Night Operations Introduction Pilots rely more on vision than on any other sense to orient themselves in flight. The following visual factors contribute to flying performance: good depth perception for safe landings, good visual acuity to identify terrain features and obstacles in the flightpath, and good color vision. Although vision is the most accurate and reliable sense, visual cues can be misleading, contributing to incidents occurring within the flight environment. Pilots should be aware of and know how to compensate effectively for the following: Physical deficiency or self-imposed stress, such as smoking, which limits night-vision capability Visual cue deficiencies Limitations in visual acuity, dark adaptation, and color and depth perception For example, at night, the unaided eye has degraded visual acuity. For more information on night operations, reference Chapter 17, Aeromedical Factors, of the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25, as revised). 12-1 Visual Deficiencies be as dim as possible. The eye can then adjust for the outside lighting conditions (ambient lighting) to see outside. The Night Myopia dimmer the inside lighting is, the better you can see outside. At night, blue wavelengths of light prevail in the visible portion of the spectrum. Therefore, slightly nearsighted Hyperopia (myopic) individuals viewing blue-green light at night may Hyperopia is also caused by an error in refraction. In a experience blurred vision. Even pilots with perfect vision find hyperopic state, when a pilot views a near image, the actual that image sharpness decreases as pupil diameter increases. focal point of the eye is behind the retinal plane (wall), For individuals with mild refractive errors, these factors causing blurred vision. Objects that are nearby are not seen combine to make vision unacceptably blurred unless they clearly; only more distant objects are in focus. This problem, wear corrective glasses. Another factor to consider is “dark is referred to as farsightedness. focus.” When light levels decrease, the focusing mechanism of the eye may move toward a resting position and make the Astigmatism eye more myopic. These factors become important when An unequal curvature of the cornea or lens of the eye causes pilots rely on terrain features during unaided night flights. this condition. A ray of light is spread over a diffused area Practicing good light discipline is very important and helps in one meridian. In normal vision, a ray of light is sharply pilots to retain their night adaptation. Keeping the cockpit focused on the retina. Astigmatism is the inability to lighting on dim allows the pilot to better identify outside focus different meridians simultaneously. If, for example, details, unmarked hazards such as towers less than 200' astigmatic individuals focus on power poles (vertical), AGL, and unimproved landing sites with no hazard lighting. the wires (horizontal) are out of focus for most of them. [Figure 12-2] A simple exercise that shows the effect of high versus low light contrast would be to go out to a very dark road and Presbyopia turn the dash board lights down very low or off and let your eyes adjust to the ambient light level. Then, turn the dash This condition is part of the normal aging process, which board lights up and note how the outside features disappear. causes the lens to harden. Beginning in the early teens, the The same concept applies to cockpit lighting and being able human eye gradually loses the ability to accommodate for to see the surrounding terrain and obstacles. [Figure 12-1] and focus on nearby objects. When people are about 40 years Special corrective lenses can be prescribed to pilots who old, their eyes are unable to focus at normal reading distances experience night myopia. without reading glasses. Reduced illumination interferes with focus depth and accommodation ability. Hardening of the lens The eye automatically adjusts for the light level experienced. may also result in clouding of the lens (cataract formation). During night flight, the cockpit and instrument lights should Aviators with early cataracts may see a standard eye chart clearly under normal daylight but have difficulty seeing under bright light conditions. This problem is due to light scattering as it enters the eye. This glare sensitivity is disabling under certain circumstances. Glare disability, related to contrast sensitivity, is the ability to detect objects against varying shades of backgrounds. Other visual functions decline with age and affect the aircrew member’s performance: Dynamic acuity Recovery from glare Function under low illumination Information processing Vision in Flight The visual sense is especially important in collision avoidance and depth perception. Due to the structure of the human eye, illusions and blindspots occur. The more pilots understand the eye and how it functions, the easier it is to compensate for these illusions and blindspots. Figure 12-3 Figure 12-1. Effects of dimming cockpit lighting during night flight shows the basic anatomy of the human eye and how it is like to better see surrounding terrain. 12-2  Normal view Astigmatic view Figure 12-2. Example of a view that might be experienced by someone with astigmatism. The rods and cones (film) of Rods and the retina are cones the receptors which record the image and transmit it through the Fovea optic nerve to (All Cones) the brain for interpretation. Rod concentration Lens Iris Optic nerve Retina PUPIL CORNEA The pupil (aperture) is the opening at Light passes through the cornea (the the center of the iris. The size of the transparent window on the front of the pupil is adjusted to control the amount eye) and then through the lens to of light entering the eye. focus on the retina. Figure 12-3. The human eye. a camera. A camera is able to focus on near and far objects Visual Acuity by changing the distance between the lens and the film. Normal visual acuity, or sharpness, is 20/20. A value of With the eye on the other hand, objects can be seen clearly 20/80 indicates that an individual reads at 20 feet the letters at various distances because the shape of its lens is changed that an individual with normal acuity (20/20) reads at 80 automatically by small muscles. feet away. The human eye functions like a camera. It has 12-3 an instantaneous field of view, which is oval and typically In low light, the cones lose much of their function, while measures 120° vertically by 150° horizontally. When both rods become more receptive. The eye sacrifices sharpness for eyes are used for viewing, the overall field of vision measures sensitivity. The ability to see an object directly in front of you is about 120° vertically by 200° horizontally. reduced, and much depth perception is lost, as well as judgment of size. The concentration of cones in the fovea can make a The Eye night blindspot at the center of vision. How well a person sees Vision is primarily the result of light striking a photosensitive at night is determined by the rods in the eyes, as well as by the layer, called the retina, at the back of the eye. The retina is amount of light allowed into the eyes. At night, the wider the composed of light-sensitive cones and rods. The cones in the pupil is open at night, the better night vision becomes. eye perceive an image best when the light is bright, while the rods work best in low light. The pattern of light that strikes Night Vision the cones and rods is transmitted as electrical impulses by the Diet and general physical health have an impact on how well optic nerve to the brain where these signals are interpreted a person can see in the dark. Deficiencies in vitamins A and C as an image. have been shown to reduce night acuity. Other factors, such as carbon monoxide poisoning, smoking, alcohol, and certain Cones drugs can greatly decrease night vision. Lack of oxygen can Cones are concentrated around the center of the retina. They also decrease night vision as the eye requires more oxygen gradually diminish in number as the distance from the center per unit weight than any other part of the body. increases. Cones allow color perception by sensing red, blue, and green light. Directly behind the lens, on the retina, is Night Scanning a small, notched area called the fovea. This area contains Good night visual acuity is needed for collision avoidance. only a high concentration of cone receptors. The best vision Night scanning, like day scanning, uses a series of short, in daylight is obtained by looking directly at the object. regularly spaced eye movements in 10° sectors. Unlike day This focuses the image on the fovea, where detail is best scanning, however, off-center viewing is used to focus objects seen. The cones, however, do not function well in darkness, on the rods rather than the fovea blindspot. [Figure 12-4] When which explains why color is not seen as vividly at night as looking at an object, avoid staring at it too long. If staring it is during the day. at an object without moving the eyes, the retina becomes accustomed to the light intensity and the image begins to Rods fade. To keep it clearly visible, new areas in the retina must Concentrated outside the fovea area, the rods are the dim be exposed to the image. Small, circular eye movements help light and night receptors. The number of rods increases as the eliminate the fading. Also, move the eyes more slowly from distance from the fovea increases. Rods sense images only sector to sector than during the day to prevent blurring. in black and white. Because the rods are not located directly behind the pupil, they are responsible for most peripheral During daylight, objects can be perceived at a great distance vision. Images that move are perceived more easily by the with good detail. At night, range is limited, and detail is poor. rod areas than by the cones in the fovea. If you have ever Objects along the flight path can be more readily identified at seen something move out of the corner of your eye, it was night, by using the proper techniques to scan the terrain. To most likely detected by rod receptors. FOCAL POINTS X 10° Observer Once a target is detected in the peripheral X 10° X 10° field of dark-adapted vision, aircrews maintain continual surveillance by using 10° the off-center vision technique. They look X 10 degrees above, below, or to either side of the target, viewing it no longer than two to three seconds at each position. Figure 12-4. Off-center vision technique. 12-4 scan effectively, pilots look from side to side. They should of detail that is required, but no stop should last more than begin scanning at the greatest distance at which an object two or three seconds. When moving from one viewing point can be perceived high on the horizon, thence moving inward to the next, pilots should overlap the previous field of view toward the position of the aircraft. Figure 12-5 shows this by 10 degrees. This scanning technique allows greater clarity scanning pattern. Because the light-sensitive elements of in observing the periphery. Other scanning techniques, as the retina are unable to perceive images that are in motion, a illustrated in Figure 12-6, may be developed to fit the situation. stop-turn-stop-turn motion should be used. For each stop, an area about 30 degrees wide should be scanned. This viewing Obstruction Detection angle includes an area about 250 meters wide at a distance of Obstructions having poor reflective surfaces, such as wires 500 meters. The duration of each stop is based on the degree and small tree limbs, are difficult to detect. The best way to 10° 1 2 4 3 Figure 12-5. Scanning pattern. 3 seconds 3 seconds 3 seconds 6 seconds 6 seconds 4 s nd se co co se nd 4 seconds 4 seconds s 4 6 seconds 6 seconds 6 seconds 3 seconds 3 seconds 3 seconds Figure 12-6. Night vision. 12-5 locate wires is by looking for the support structures. However, on the other hand, is flying away from aircraft 3, as indicated pilots should review the most current hazard maps with by the white position light. known wire locations before night flights. Visual Illusions Aircraft Lighting Illusions give false impressions or misconceptions of actual In order to see other aircraft more clearly, regulations require conditions; therefore, pilots must understand the type of that all aircraft operating during the night hours have special illusions that can occur and the resulting disorientation. lights and equipment. The requirements for operating at night Although the eye is the most reliable of the senses, some are found in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 illusions can result from misinterpreting what is seen; what CFR) part 91. In addition to aircraft lighting, the regulations is perceived is not always accurate. Even with the references also provide a definition of night flight in accordance with outside the cockpit and the display of instruments inside, 14 CFR part 91, currency requirements, fuel reserves, and pilots must be on guard to interpret information correctly. necessary electrical systems. Relative-Motion Illusion Position lights enable a pilot to locate another aircraft, as Relative motion is the falsely perceived self-motion in well as help determine its direction of flight. The approved relation to the motion of another object. The most common aircraft lights for night operations are a green light on the example is as follows. An individual in a car is stopped at a right cabin side or wingtip, a red light on the left cabin side traffic light and another car pulls alongside. The individual or wingtip, and a white position light on the tail. In addition, who was stopped at the light perceives the forward motion flashing aviation red or white anticollision lights are required of the second car as his or her own motion rearward. This for all flights, if equipped on the aircraft and in an operable results in the individual applying more pressure to the brakes condition (in accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.209(b), unnecessarily. This illusion can be encountered during flight which aids in the identification during night conditions). in situations such as formation flight, hover taxi, or hovering These flashing lights can be in a number of locations but are over water or tall grass. most commonly found on the top and bottom of the cabin. Confusion with Ground Lights Figure 12-7 shows examples of aircraft lighting. By Confusion with ground lights occurs when a pilot mistakes interpreting the position lights on other aircraft, the pilot in ground lights for stars. The pilot can place the helicopter aircraft 3 can determine whether the aircraft is flying in the in an extremely dangerous flight attitude if he or she aligns opposite direction or is on a collision course. If a red position it with the wrong lights. In Figure 12-8A, the helicopter is light is seen to the right of a green light, such as shown by aligned with a road and not with the horizon. Isolated ground aircraft 1, it is flying toward aircraft 3. A pilot should watch lights can appear as stars and could lead to the illusion that this aircraft closely and be ready to change course. Aircraft 2, the helicopter is in a nose-high attitude. When no stars are visible because of overcast conditions, unlighted areas of terrain can blend with the dark overcast to create the illusion that the unlighted terrain is part of the sky in Figure 12-8B. In this illusion, the shoreline is mistaken for the horizon. In an attempt to correct for the apparent nose- high attitude, a pilot may lower the collective and attempt to fly “beneath the shore.” This illusion can be avoided by referencing the flight instruments and establishing a true horizon and attitude. Reversible Perspective Illusion At night, an aircraft or helicopter may appear to be moving away when it is actually approaching. If the pilot of each aircraft has the same assumption, and the rate of closure is significant, by the time each pilot realizes his or her own error in assumption, it may be too late to avoid a mishap. This illusion is called reversible perspective and is often experienced when a pilot observes another aircraft Figure 12-7. Aircraft position lights. 12-6  zon ori y) ri zon al H st sk Ho t u l Ac erca tua (ov Ac Perceived Horizon Perceived Horizon (ground lights) (shore line) A O M A O M MR MR STARTER TR lOW LOW MR MR STARTER TR lOW LOW CLUTCH CLUTCH TEMP CHIP ON CHIP FUEL RPM TEMP CHIP ON CHIP FUEL RPM 0 0 E R E R 10 10 KNOTS 20 FEET KNOTS 20 FEET 30 I00 30 I00 100 120 20 30 9 0 I 100 120 20 30 9 0 I 40 40 110 110 20 110 110 20 100 90 100 90 110 MPH 40 50 20 I0 I0 8 ALT 2 100 90 100 90 110 MPH 40 50 20 I0 I0 8 ALT 2 29.8 29.8 90 90 CALIBRATED CALIBRATED 80 80 100 TO 20,000 FEET 29.9 80 80 100 TO 20,000 FEET 29.9 30.0 30.0 50 7 50 7 70 70 60 I0 70 70 60 I0 50 60 60 50 90 80 70 I0 20 20 3 20 50 60 60 50 90 80 70 I0 20 20 3 20 6 6 5 4 5 4 80 80 %RPM 70 60 20 %RPM 70 60 20 STBY PWR TEST I0 STBY PWR TEST I0 I0 I0 I0 I0 15 20 25 L R 24 30 I0 15 I0 15 20 25 L R 24 30 I0 15 I0 MANFOLD 5 UP VERTICAL SPEED 20 MANFOLD 5 UP VERTICAL SPEED 20 33 33 PRESS PRESS 20 20 2I 2I 10 30 100 FEET PER MINUTE 10 30 100 FEET PER MINUTE 0 20 0 20 I N Hg IN H g 5 35 DOWN 5 35 DOWN I5 I5 ALg. AL g. 3 3 5 5 6 15 6 15 I0 I0 I2 I2 2 MIN TURN 2 MIN TURN DC ELEC DC ELEC STBY PWR TEST STBY PWR TEST A 33 N 3 B 33 N 3 6 6 30 30 GS GS W W E E 12 12 24 24 Figure 12-8. At night, the horizon may be hard to discern due to dark terrain and misleading light patterns on the ground. or helicopter flying an approaching, parallel course. To flight until conditions improve, unless proper instrument determine the direction of flight, the pilot should observe the flight training has been received and the helicopter has the other aircraft’s position lights. Remember the following: red appropriate instrumentation and equipment. on right returning; that is, if an aircraft is seen with the red position light on the right and the green position light on the Preflight left, the observed aircraft is traveling in the opposite direction. Aircraft preflight inspection is a critical aspect of flight safety. It must comply with the appropriate rotorcraft flight Flicker Vertigo manual (RFM). Preflight should be scheduled as early as Flicker vertigo is technically not an illusion; however, as possible in the flight planning sequence, preferably during most people are aware from personal experience, viewing daylight hours, allowing time for maintenance assistance and a flickering light can be both distracting and annoying. correction. If a night preflight is necessary, a flashlight with Flicker vertigo may be created by helicopter rotor blades or an unfiltered lens (white light) should be used to supplement airplane propellers interrupting direct sunlight at a rate of 4 lighting. Oil and hydraulic fluid levels and leaks are difficult to 20 cycles per second. Flashing anticollision strobe lights, to detect with a blue-green or red lens. Windscreens should especially while the aircraft is in the clouds, can also produce be checked to ensure they are clean and relatively free of this effect. One should also be aware that photic stimuli at scratches. Slight scratches are acceptable for day flight but certain frequencies could produce seizures in those rare may not be for night flight. The search light or landing light individuals who are susceptible to flicker-induced epilepsy. should be positioned for the best possible illumination during an emergency descent. Night Flight The night flying environment and the techniques used when Careful attention must be paid to the aircraft electrical system. flying at night depend on outside conditions. Flying on a In helicopters equipped with fuses, a spare set is required bright, clear, moonlit evening when the visibility is good, and by regulation, and by common sense, so make sure they are the wind is calm is not much different from flying during the on board. If the helicopter is equipped with circuit breakers, day. However, if flying on an overcast night over a sparsely check to see that they are not tripped. A tripped circuit breaker populated area, with few or no outside lights on the ground, may be an indication of an equipment malfunction and should the situation is quite different. Visibility is restricted, so be be left for maintenance to troubleshoot before flying. more alert in steering clear of obstructions and low clouds. Options are also limited in the event of an emergency, as it All aircraft operating between sunset and sunrise are required is more difficult to find a place to land and determine wind to have operable navigation (position) lights. Turn these lights direction and speed. At night, rely more heavily on the aircraft on during the preflight to inspect them visually for proper systems, such as lights, flight instruments, and navigation operation. Between sunset and sunrise, these lights must be equipment. As a precaution, if visibility is limited or outside on any time the helicopter is operating. references are inadequate, strongly consider delaying the 12-7 All recently manufactured aircraft certificated for night in congested ramp and parking areas. Some helicopters have flight must have an anticollision light that makes the aircraft a hover light in addition to a landing light, which illuminates more visible to other pilots. This light is either a red or white a larger area under the helicopter. flashing light and may be in the form of a rotating beacon or a strobe. While anticollision lights are required for night When operating at an unfamiliar airport at night, ask for visual flight rules (VFR) flights, they may be turned off any instructions or advice concerning local conditions, so as to time they create a distraction for the pilot. avoid taxiing into areas of construction, or unlighted, unmarked obstructions. Ground controllers or UNICOM operators are One of the first steps in preparation for night flight is to usually cooperative in furnishing this type of information. become thoroughly familiar with the helicopter’s cockpit, instrumentation, and control layout. It is recommended that Night Traffic Patterns a pilot practice locating each instrument, control, and switch, Traffic patterns are covered in Chapter 9, Basic Flight both with and without cabin lights. Since the markings on Maneuvers, but the following additional considerations some switches and circuit breaker panels may be difficult should be taken into account when flying a helicopter in a to read at night, be able to locate and use these devices, and night traffic pattern: read the markings in poor light conditions. Before starting 1. The minimum recommended pattern height at night the engine, make sure all necessary equipment and supplies is 1,000 feet when able. needed for the flight, such as charts, notepads, and flashlights, are accessible and ready for use. 2. If possible, consider taking the right hand night pattern with fixed wing in the left hand pattern for extra Cockpit Lights separation, but if needed, conform and integrate with Check all interior lights with special attention to the instrument the fixed wing using the same pattern height. and panel lights. The panel lighting can usually be controlled 3. Be extra vigilant on abiding with noise abatement with a rheostat or dimmer switch, allowing the pilot to adjust procedures at night. the intensity. If a particular light is too bright or causes 4. Always plan to use the lit runway at night for reflection or glare off the windshield, it should be adjusted or unaided (no night vision equipment) approaches and turned off. As ambient light level decreases from twilight to departures. darkness, intensity of the cockpit lights is reduced to a low, usable intensity level that reduces any glare or reflection off 5. Avoid downwind and crosswind approaches at night the windshield. The light level should be adjusted to as close when able. to the ambient light level as possible. A flashlight, with red or blue-green lens filter, or map light can supplement the available Takeoff light in the cockpit. Always carry a flashlight with fresh Before takeoff, make sure that there is a clear, unobstructed batteries to provide an alternate source of light if the interior takeoff path. At airports, this is accomplished by taking lights malfunction. If an existing map/utility light is used, it off over a runway or taxi way, however, if operating off- should be hand-held or remounted to a convenient location. airport, pay more attention to the surroundings. Obstructions In order to retain night adaptation, use low level light when may also be difficult to see if taking off from an unlighted using your checklist. Brief your passengers on the importance area. Once a suitable takeoff path is chosen, select a point of light discipline during night flight so the pilot is not blinded, down the takeoff path to use for directional reference. The causing loss of dark adaptation. landing light should be positioned in order to illuminate the tallest obstacles in the takeoff path. During a night Engine Starting and Rotor Engagement takeoff, notice a lack of reliable outside visual references Use extra caution when starting the engine and engaging the after becoming airborne. This is particularly true at small rotors, especially in dark areas with little or no outside lights. airports and off-airport landing sites located in sparsely In addition to the usual call of “clear,” turn on the position populated areas. To compensate for the lack of outside and anticollision lights. If conditions permit, also turn the references, use the available flight instruments as an aid. landing light on momentarily to help warn others that the Check the altimeter and the airspeed indicator to verify the engine is about to start and engage the rotors. proper climb attitude. An attitude indicator, if installed, can enhance attitude reference. Taxi Technique Landing lights usually cast a beam that is narrow and The first 500 feet of altitude after takeoff is considered to be concentrated ahead of the helicopter, so illumination to the the most critical period in transitioning from the comparatively side is minimal. Therefore, slow the taxi at night, especially well-lit airport or heliport into what sometimes appears to be 12-8 total darkness. A takeoff at night is usually an “altitude over another aircraft’s direction of flight by interpreting the airspeed” maneuver, meaning a pilot most likely performs position and anticollision lights, as previously described. a nearly maximum performance takeoff. This improves the When scanning, pilots should also remember to move their chances for obstacle clearance and enhances safety. heads, not just their eyes. Ground obstructions can cover a considerable amount of sky, and the area can easily be En Route Procedures uncovered by a small head movement. In order to provide a higher margin of safety, it is recommended that a cruising altitude somewhat higher than Approach and Landing normal be selected. There are three reasons for this. First, Night approaches and landings do have some advantages over a higher altitude gives more clearance between obstacles, daytime approaches, as the air is generally smoother, and the especially those that are difficult to see at night, such as high- disruptive effects of turbulence and excessive crosswinds are tension wires and unlighted towers. Second, in the event of often absent. However, there are a few special considerations an engine failure, there is more time to set up for a landing and techniques that apply to approaches at night. For and the greater gliding distance gives more options for a safe example, when landing at night, especially at an unfamiliar landing. Third, radio reception is improved, particularly if airport, make the approach to a lighted runway and then use using radio aids for navigation. the taxiways to avoid unlighted obstructions or equipment. During preflight planning, when possible, it is recommended Carefully controlled studies have revealed that pilots have a that a route of flight be selected that is within reach of an tendency to make lower approaches at night than during the airport, or any safe landing site. It is also recommended day. This is potentially dangerous as there is a greater chance that pilots fly as close as possible to a populated or lighted of hitting an obstacle, such as an overhead wire or fence, that is area, such as a highway or town. Not only does this offer difficult to see. It is good practice to make steeper approaches at more options in the event of an emergency, but also makes night, increasing the probability of clearing obstacles. Monitor navigation a lot easier. A course comprised of a series of altitude and rate of descent using the altimeter. slight zigzags to stay close to suitable landing sites and well-lit areas, only adds a little more time and distance to an Another pilot tendency during night flight is to focus too otherwise straight course. much on the landing area and not pay enough attention to airspeed. If too much airspeed is lost, a vortex ring state In the event of a forced landing at night, use the same condition may result. Maintain the proper attitude during procedure recommended for day time emergency landings. the approach, and ensure that you keep some forward If available, turn on the landing light during the final descent airspeed and movement until close to the ground. Outside to help in avoiding obstacles along the approach path. visual references for airspeed and rate of closure may not be available, especially when landing in an unlit area, so pay Collision Avoidance at Night special attention to the airspeed indicator. Because the quantity and quality of outside visual references are greatly reduced, a pilot tends to focus on a single point Although the landing light is a helpful aid when making or instrument, making him or her less aware of the other night approaches, there is an inherent disadvantage. The traffic around. Make a special effort to devote enough time portion of the landing area illuminated by the landing light to scan for traffic. As discussed previously in this chapter, seems higher than the dark area surrounding it. This effect effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, can cause a pilot to terminate the approach at an altitude that regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive is too high, which may result in a vortex ring state condition areas of the sky into the central visual field. Contrary to and a hard landing. the 30-degree scan used to view the ground in the case of scanning for other aircraft, each movement in this case Illusions Leading to Landing Errors should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be Various surface features and atmospheric conditions observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. If the encountered in night landing can create illusions of incorrect pilot detects a dimly lit object in a certain direction, the height above and distance from the runway threshold. pilot should not look directly at the object, but scan the area Landing errors from these illusions can be prevented by adjacent to it, called off-center viewing. This will decrease anticipating them during approaches, conducting an aerial the chances of fixating on the light and allow focusing more visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing, using on the objects (e.g., tower, aircraft, ground lights). Short electronic glideslope or VASI systems when available, and stops of a few seconds in duration in each scan will help to maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures. detect the light and its movement. A pilot can determine 12-9 Featureless Terrain Illusion 2. The aircraft is operated over surface lighting that, at An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, least, provides lighting of prominent obstacles, the darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow, can identification of terrain features (shorelines, valleys, create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than hills, mountains, slopes) and a horizontal reference it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion by which the pilot may control the helicopter. For will fly a lower approach. example, this surface lighting may be the result of: a. Extensive cultural lighting (manmade, such as a Atmospheric Illusions built-up area of a city), Rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater b. Significant reflected cultural lighting (such as the height, and atmospheric haze can create the illusion of being illumination caused by the reflection of a major at a greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does not metropolitan area’s lighting reflecting off a cloud recognize these illusions flies a higher approach. Penetration ceiling), or of fog can create the illusion of pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion steepens the approach, often c. Limited cultural lighting combined with a quite abruptly. high level of natural reflectivity of celestial illumination, such as that provided by a surface Ground Lighting Illusions covered by snow or a desert surface. Lights along a straight path can be mistaken for runway and approach lights. This might include street lights along a Low lighting conditions are those that do not meet the high roadside or even the internal lights of a moving train. Another lighting conditions requirements. illusion may occur with very intense runway and approach lighting. Due to the relative brightness of these lights, the Some areas may be considered a high lighting environment pilot may perceive them to be closer than they really are. only in specific circumstances. For example, some surfaces, Assuming that the lights are as close as they appear, the such as a forest with limited cultural lighting, normally pilot may attempt an approach that is actually lower than have little reflectivity, requiring dependence on significant glideslope. Conversely, the pilot flying over terrain with few moonlight to achieve a high lighting condition. However, lights may make a lower than normal approach. when that same forest is covered with snow, its reflectivity may support a high lighting condition based only on starlight. Helicopter Night VFR Operations Similarly, a desolate area, with little cultural lighting, such as a desert, may have such inherent natural reflectivity that it While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety in night may be considered a high lighting conditions area regardless VFR operations, lighting conditions also have a profound of season, provided the cloud cover does not prevent starlight effect on safety. Even in conditions in which visibility and from being reflected from the surface. Other surfaces, such ceiling are determined to be visual meteorological conditions, as areas of open water, may never have enough reflectivity or the ability to discern unlit or low contrast objects and terrain cultural lighting to ever be characterized as a high lighting area. at night may be compromised. The ability to discern these objects and terrain is referred to as the “seeing condition,” Through the accumulation of night flying experience in a and is related to the amount of natural and man-made particular area, the pilot develops the ability to determine, lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and texture prior to departure, which areas can be considered supporting of surface terrain and obstruction features. In order to conduct high or low lighting conditions. Without that pilot experience, operations safely, seeing conditions must be accounted for in low lighting considerations should be applied by pilots for the planning and execution of night VFR operations. both preflight planning and operations until high lighting conditions are observed or determined to be regularly Night VFR seeing conditions can be described by identifying available. Even if the aircraft is certified for day and night high lighting conditions and low lighting conditions. VFR conditions, night flight should only be conducted if adequate celestial illumination is assured during the entirety High lighting conditions exist when one of two sets of of the flight. conditions are present: 1. The sky cover is less than broken (less than 5⁄8 cloud Chapter Summary cover), the time is between the local moon rise and Knowledge of the basic anatomy and physiology of the eye moon set, and the lunar disk is at least 50 percent is helpful in the study of helicopter night operations. Adding illuminated; or 12-10 to that knowledge a study of visual illusions gives the pilot ways to overcome those illusions. Techniques for preflight, engine start-up, collision avoidance, and night approach and landings help teach the pilot safer ways to conduct flight at night. More detailed information on the subjects discussed in this chapter is available in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and online at www.faa.gov. 12-11 12-12