Introduction to Psychology PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to A. Cognitive psychology focuses on higher mental processes, including Psychology thinking, memory, reasoning, problem- Psychology is the scienti...

Chapter 1: Introduction to A. Cognitive psychology focuses on higher mental processes, including Psychology thinking, memory, reasoning, problem- Psychology is the scientific study of behavior solving, judging, decision-making, and language. and mental processes. B. Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change from the moment of Many people think psychology means the study conception through death. of the mind. The word “psychology” comes C. Personality psychology focuses on the from the Greek roots of “psyche,” meaning consistency in people’s behavior over time and “mind”, and “logos,” meaning “knowledge or the traits that differentiate one person from study.” another. D. Health psychology explores the Today, however, psychology is defined as the relationship between psychological factors and study of behavior and mental processes. physical ailments or disease. 3. Clinical psychology deals with the study, Behavior – refers to anything you do. Smiling, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological running, laughing, eating, and sleeping are all disorders. examples of behaviors. Actions or responses 4. Counseling psychology focuses primarily on that are directly observable are referred to as educational, social, and career adjustment overt behaviors. problems. 5. Forensic psychology applies psychology to Mental processes – refer to thoughts, emotions, the criminal-justice system and to legal issues. perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, 6. Social psychology is the study of how and even the biological activities that maintain people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are bodily functioning. These processes are affected by others. referred to as covert behaviors. 7. Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological Psychologists try to describe, predict, and functioning in and across various cultures and explain human behavior and mental processes, ethnic groups. as well as help to change and improve the lives 8. Evolutionary psychology considers how our of people and the world in which they live. behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. The subfields of psychology: evolutionary approach suggests that the chemical coding of information in our cells not 1. Behavioral neuroscience is the subfield of only determines traits such as hair color and psychology that mainly examines how the brain race, but also holds the key to understanding a and the nervous system determine behavior. broad variety of behaviors that helped our Thus, neuroscientists consider how our bodies ancestors survive and reproduce. influence our behavior. 9. Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and 2. Experimental psychology is the branch of how the environment influences whether we psychology that studies the processes of actually display such traits. sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about 10. Clinical neuropsychology combines the the world. areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology. It focuses on the origin of psychological Here are some subspecialties within disorders in biological factors. experimental psychology:  system, and other biological functions. It The Roots of Psychology considers how people and nonhumans function biologically: how individual nerve cells are The science of psychology began in 1879, when joined together, how genes influence behavior, Wilhelm Wundt set up the first scientific and how the functioning of the body affects laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. cognitive processes like thinking and emotions. This perspective considers the study of heredity In the late 1800s, Wilhelm Wundt, the and evolution. “founding father of psychology,” wondered how people form sensations, images, and feelings. 2. The psychodynamic perspective is based on He wanted to find a scientific way to measure the view that behavior is motivated by mental processes like thinking and feeling. He unconscious inner forces over which the referred to these as “building blocks of the individual has little control. They view dreams mind.” Wundt’s perspective is referred to as and slips of the tongue as indications of what a structuralism, analyzing sensations and personal person is truly feeling. Sigmund Freud, a experience into basic elements. physician from Vienna, Austria, developed the psychodynamic view in the early 1900s. A new perspective, functionalism, replaced Although many of the original Freudian structuralism. In the early 1900s an American principles have been criticized, his views played psychologist, William James, became interested a huge role in understanding the unconscious in how the mind functions to help people determinants of behavior in psychology and in survive and adapt to their environments. related fields. Functionalists based their theories on Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection, which 3. The behavioral perspective suggests that states that those plants and animals that are observable, measurable behavior should be the able to adapt to their environment will be focus of study. Many psychologists rejected the retained in evolution. It is also known as neuroscience and psychodynamic approaches “survival of the fittest.” that looked inside the organism to determine the causes of its behavior. Instead, they felt Another important school of thought named psychology should focus on behaviors that can gestalt psychology developed in the early be observed and measured. John B. Watson 1900s. German psychologists Hermann was the first major American psychologist to Ebbinghaus and Max Wertheimer looked at how advocate a behavioral approach. perception is organized. Instead of looking at the individual parts that make up thinking, they 4. The cognitive perspective focuses on how looked at the parts together, as whole units. people think, understand, and know about the They proposed that “the whole is different from world. The emphasis is on how people the sum of its parts,” meaning that our comprehend and represent the outside world perception of the whole object is more within themselves, and how our ways of meaningful than the individual elements that thinking about the world influence our make up our perceptions. behavior. Today, the field of psychology includes five 5. The humanistic perspective suggests that all major perspectives that emphasize different individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, aspects of behavior and mental processes. and be in control of their lives and behavior. It rejects the view that behavior is determined by 1. The neuroscience perspective views behavior automatically unfolding biological forces, from the perspective of the brain, the nervous unconscious processes, or the environment. The scientific method consists of four main by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge steps: from negative to positive. 1. Identifying questions of interest– 2. Formulating an explanation 4. Mirror neurons – Neurons that fire both 3. Carrying out research designed to support or when a person enacts a particular behavior and refute the explanation when a person simply observes another 4. Communicating the findings process and individual carrying out the same behavior. allows other researchers to test the same hypothesis. Neurons in your brain connect to each other through a chemical connection called a synapse. Chapter 2: Neuroscience and Synapse - the space between the axon of a Behavior sending neuron and the dendrite of a receiving Behavioral neuroscientists, also called neuron. biopsychologists, study the ways in which biological functions of the body affect behavior. Neurotransmitters – chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite of a The Structure of the Neuron receiving neuron. 1. Neurons – nerve cells that are the basic Excitatory messages make it more likely that a elements of the nervous system. They carry receiving neuron will fire and an action messages back and forth that enable people to potential will travel down its axon. think, remember, and experience emotion. Inhibitory messages do just the opposite; they 2. Dendrite – a cluster of fibers at one end of provide chemical information that prevents or the neuron that receive incoming messages decreases the likelihood that the receiving from other neurons. neuron will fire. 3. Axon - a long tube-like extension at the other Reuptake – The reabsorption of end of the neuron that carries messages to neurotransmitters by a terminal button. other neurons or body cells. There are more than a hundred chemicals that 4. Terminal buttons – small bulges at the end of act as neurotransmitters. Once again, the axons that send messages to other neurons. neurotransmitters carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite of a receiving neuron. 5. Myelin sheath - a protective coating of fat Two common neurotransmitters are: and protein that wraps around the axon. 1. Acetylcholine (ACh) is found throughout the Other principles: nervous system and transmits messages relating 1. All-or-none law - The rule that neurons are to our skeletal muscles and memory either on or off. capabilities. 2. Resting state - The state when a neuron is off 2. Dopamine (DA) is involved in movement, and has a negative electrical charge of about attention, and learning. 270 millivolts. 3. Glutamate – a common neurotransmitter 3. Action potential - An electric nerve impulse that plays a role in metabolism. that travels through a neuron when it is set off 4. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) 8. Autonomic division - the part of the moderates behaviors from eating to aggression. peripheral nervous system that controls It acts as a natural calming and anti-epileptic involuntary movement of the heart, glands, agent in the brain. lungs, and other organs. 5. Serotonin is associated with the regulation of 9. Sympathetic division - the part of the sleep, eating, mood, and pain. It is most noted autonomic division of the peripheral nervous for its impact on mood and the sleep/wake system that acts to prepare the body for action cycle. Serotonin plays a key role in the in stressful situations, engaging all the treatment of depression. organism’s resources to respond to a threat. 6. Endorphins are involved in the brain’s effort 10. Parasympathetic division – the part of the to deal with pain and elevate mood. autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system that acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. The Nervous System The endocrine system is a chemical 1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) – The part communication network that sends messages of the nervous system that is composed of brain throughout the body via the bloodstream by and spinal cord. secreting hormones. Hormones are chemicals secreted by the 2. Reflexes - automatic, involuntary responses endocrine system that travel throughout the to incoming stimuli. body via the bloodstream and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. 3. Sensory (afferent) neurons – Transmit information from the perimeter of the body to The pituitary gland controls the functioning of the central nervous system. the endocrine system. It is called the “master gland” because it controls the functioning of the 4. Motor (efferent) neurons - communicate other glands and it also controls growth. information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) is when artificial hormones are used to replace deficient 5. Interneurons – connect sensory and motor hormones. neurons and carry messages between the two. The BRAIN 6. Peripheral Nervous System - the part of the Modern brain scanning techniques allow nervous system that includes the autonomic researchers to examine how the brain works. and somatic subdivisions, is made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, and branches 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) - records out from the spinal cord and brain to reach the electrical activity in the brain through extremities of the body. electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. 7. Somatic division - the part of the peripheral 2. Positron emission tomography (PET) – scans nervous system that specializes in the control of that show biochemical activity within the brain voluntary movements and the communication at a given moment. of information to and from the sense organs. 3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - provides a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures most sophisticated information processing in and activity. the brain. 4. Transcranial magnetic stimulation imaging 2. The frontal lobe – located in the front center (TMS) - one of the newest types of scans that of the cortex – concerned with reasoning, exposes a tiny region of the brain to a strong planning, parts of speech and movement magnetic field, which causes a momentary (motor cortex), emotions and problem-solving. interruption of electrical activity. 3. The parietal lobe – located behind the frontal The central core of the brain begins at the base lobe – concerned with perception of stimuli of the skull and is known as the hindbrain, related to touch, pressure, temperature and which contains the medulla, pons, and pain. cerebellum. 4. The temporal lobe - located below the frontal 1. Medulla – controls critical body functions and parietal lobe at the center portion of the such as breathing and heartbeat. cortex – concerned with perception and recognition of hearing (auditory stimuli) and 2. Pons –acts as a transmitter of motor memory. information, coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the right and 5. The occipital lobe – located at the back of the left halves of the body. brain behind the parietal and temporal lobes - concerned with vision. 3. Cerebellum – controls bodily balance, muscle movement, coordination of sensory information 6. The motor areas of the cortex are responsible and problem solving. for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a 4. Reticular formation - activates other parts of specific location within the body. the brain immediately to produce general bodily arousal and signals the cerebral cortex to 7. The sensory areas of the cortex have three remain alert during sleep. regions that are responsible for body sensations like touch and pressure, sight, and sound. 5. Thalamus – acts as a relay station for information about the senses, determines if 8. The association areas of the cerebral cortex things are good or bad, and forwards the are the sites of higher mental processes, such as information to the cerebral cortex. thought, language, memory, and speech. They make up a large portion of the cerebral cortex 6. Hypothalamus - maintains homeostasis, and control executive functions, which are produces and regulates survival behavior, helps abilities relating to planning, goal setting, to provide a constant body temperature and judgment, and impulse control monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the cells. Neuroplasticity and the Brain 1. Neuroplasticity refers to changes in the brain THE CEREBRAL CORTEX that occur throughout the life span. The 1. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the “new interconnections between neurons become brain,” because of its recent evolution. It more complex and new neurons are created in contains four lobes and is responsible for the certain areas of the brain during adulthood. 2. Neurogenesis refers to the process when 3. Pupil - the dark hole in the center of the iris. new neurons are created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood. 4. Iris – the colored part of the eye, which ranges from light blue to dark brown in humans. Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception 5. Accommodation – the way the lens focuses Sensation - The activation of the sense organs light by changing its own by a source of physical energy. (Physical thickness. response) 6. Rods - thin, cylindrical receptor cells that are Perception - The sorting out, interpretation, highly sensitive to light. They analysis, and integration of stimuli by the sense allow you to see in dim light. organs and brain. (Psychological response) 7. Cones - cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor Stimulus - Energy that produces a response in a cells that are responsible for sense organ. sharp focus and color perception, particularly in bright light. Absolute Threshold - The smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to be 8. Fovea - a particularly sensitive region of the detected retina that allows you to focus on something of particular interest. Noise - The background stimulation that interferes with the perception of other stimuli. 9. Optic nerve – the nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. The difference threshold is the smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense 10. Blind spot – A blockage in the field of vision that a change in stimulation has occurred. in the retina due to the absence of rods and cones in this area. The just noticeable difference is another term for the “difference threshold.” It is the 11. Optic chiasm – the point where the optic minimum change in stimulation required to nerves from each eye meet and detect the difference between two stimuli. then split. Adaptation is an adjustment in sensory capacity 12. Feature detection – the process explaining after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli. that neurons in the cortex are extraordinarily Adaptation occurs as people become specialized and are activated only by visual accustomed to a stimulus and change their stimuli of a particular shape or pattern. frame of reference. Illuminating the Structure of the Eye Sensing Sound 1. Visual spectrum - the range of wavelengths 1. Sound is the movement of air molecules that humans are able to see. brought about by a source of vibration. 2. Cornea - the transparent front part of the 2. The auditory canal is a tube-like passage that eye that covers the pupil and iris. The cornea leads to the eardrum. works with the lens to refract light. 3. The eardrum is a thin membrane that vibrates and transmits sound to the middle ear. 3. Gustation – the sense of taste. It is also called the tympanic membrane. 4. Supertasters - people who are highly 4. The middle ear is a tiny chamber containing sensitive to taste. three bones (the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup) that transmit vibrations to the oval 5. Nontasters - people who are relatively window, a thin membrane leading to the inner insensitive to taste. ear. The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, 5. The inner ear is the portion of the ear that Temperature, and Pain changes the sound vibrations into a form in 1. The skin senses are identified as touch, which they can be transmitted to the brain. It pressure, temperature, and pain. also allows us to locate our position and determine how we are moving through space. 2. People consult physicians and take medication for pain more than for any other 6. The cochlea is a coiled tube that is filled with symptom or condition. fluid and vibrates in response to sound. 3. Some people are more susceptible to pain 7. The basilar membrane is a vibrating structure than others. that runs through the center of the cochlea, divides it into an upper and a lower chamber, 4. Certain genes are linked to the experience of and contains sense receptors for sound. pain, so that we may inherit our sensitivity to pain. 8. Hair cells are tiny cells covering the basilar membrane that when bent by vibrations 5. Pain is a perceptual response that depends entering the cochlea, transmit neural messages heavily on our emotions and thoughts. to the brain. 6. Gate-control theory of pain - The theory that 9. The auditory cortex is the part of the brain particular nerve receptors lead to specific areas that provides us with a “map” of sound of the brain related to pain. frequencies, so we are able to identify the sound. The Gestalt Laws of Organization 1. The gestalt laws of organization are a series 10. Semicircular canals are three tube-like of principles that focus on the ways we organize structures of the inner ear containing fluid that bits and pieces of information into one whole sloshes through them when the head moves, picture, pattern, or piece of information. signaling rotational or angular movement to the brain. 2. Four important Gestalt principles are: closure, proximity, similarity, and simplicity. 11. Otoliths are tiny, motion-sensitive crystals in the semicircular canals. Chapter 4: States of Smell and Taste Consciousness 1. Olfaction – the human sense of smell. 1. Consciousness is the awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being 2. Olfactory cells - the receptor neurons of the experienced at a given moment. nose, which are spread across the nasal cavity.  Sleep is a requirement for normal human 2. Waking consciousness is when we are awake functioning, although we don’t know exactly and aware of our thoughts, emotions, and why. perceptions. Evolutionary researchers suggest that sleep 3. Altered states of consciousness are all other permitted our ancestors to conserve energy at states of consciousness such as sleeping, night, a time when food was relatively hard to dreaming, hypnosis, and drug-induced. come by. 4. Scientists use the electroencephalogram, or The Function and Meaning of Dreaming EEG, to study sleep. 1. The unconscious wish fulfillment theory is Sigmund Freud’s theory that dreams represent 5. During the night, people pass through a series unconscious wishes and desires. of four distinct stages of sleep and several REM periods. 2. The latent content of dreams, in Freud’s view, is the disguised meaning of dreams, 6. Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes, and each hidden by more obvious objects. stage is associated with a unique pattern of brain waves. 3. The manifest content of dreams, in Freud’s view, is the apparent story line of dreams or 7. Stage 1 sleep is a transition stage between what the person is actually dreaming about. wakefulness and sleep characterized by rapid, low-amplitude brain waves. 4. The dreams-for-survival theory suggests that dreams permit information that is critical for 8. Stage 2 sleep is a deeper stage of sleep our daily survival to be reconsidered and characterized by slower, more regular brain reprocessed during sleep. wave patterns. There are also momentary interruptions of sharply pointed, spiky waves 5. The activation-synthesis theory is Hobson’s that are called sleep spindles. theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that 9. Stage 3 sleep is an even deeper stage of sleep stimulates memories lodged in various portions characterized by slower brain waves with higher of the brain. peaks and lower valleys. Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering 10. Stage 4 sleep is the deepest stage of sleep. Problems Brain waves are the slowest and most regular. 1. Insomnia is difficulty falling asleep People are least responsive to outside accompanied by frequent awakenings. stimulation. 2. Sleep Apnea is a condition in which a person Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep occupies 20 has difficulty breathing while sleeping. percent of an adult’s sleep time and is characterized by increased heart rate, blood 3. Night terrors are sudden awakenings from pressure, and breathing rate; erections (in non-REM sleep that are accompanied by males); eye movements; and the experience of extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological dreaming arousal. 4. Narcolepsy is sudden, irresistible sleep 6. Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, attacks for short periods while a person is methamphetamine, and cocaine are all awake. categorized as stimulants. 5. Sleeptalking and Sleepwalking occur during a -Depressants are drugs that slow down the stage 4 sleep and are more common in children nervous system by causing neurons to fire more than in adults. Little is known about these slowly. disorders, but they usually have a vague consciousness of the world around them. -Alcohol, barbiturates, and Rohypnol are all categorized as depressants. Circadian rhythms are biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour - Narcotics are drugs that increase relaxation cycle and relieve pain and anxiety. Hypnosis Hypnosis is a trancelike state of -Heroin is a powerful narcotic, derived from the deep relaxation and heightened susceptibility to poppy seed pod, which produces a “rush” of the suggestions of others. positive feelings and a sense of well-being. Meditation is a learned technique for -Heroin causes both a biological and a refocusing attention that brings about an psychological addiction. altered state of consciousness. - A hallucinogen is a drug that is capable of Drug Use producing hallucinations, or changes in the 1. Psychoactive drugs are drugs that influence a perceptual process. person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior. -Mushrooms, jimsonweed, morning glories, 2. Addictive drugs are drugs that produce a marijuana, MDMA (Ecstasy), and LSD (Acid) are biological or psychological dependence in the categorized as hallucinogens. user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be -The most common hallucinogen is marijuana. nearly irresistible. It usually produces feelings of euphoria and more vivid sensory experiences. 3. In biologically based addictions, the body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the -MDMA or “Ecstasy” is affects the operation of presence of a drug that it cannot function the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, without it. causing an alteration in brain-cell activity and perception. The use of Ecstasy is associated 4. Psychologically based addictions are those in with club hopping and raves. which people believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living. -LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide, also known as “acid,” produces vivid hallucinations and a 5. Stimulants are drugs that have an arousal distortion of time. effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular Chapter 5: Learning tension. One major form of learning is classical conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus—one that normally brings about no relevant response—is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (called an unconditioned stimulus) that 4. A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological brings about a natural, untrained response. (p. need and works naturally, regardless of a xx) person’s prior experience. Primary reinforcers include things like food, warmth, and pain relief. Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior based on experience. 5. A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association Stimulus: Anything that causes a response. with a primary reinforcer. Secondary reinforcers include things like money, praise, attention, Response: Any behavior or action. gold stars, good grades and bonuses. Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in Positive Reinforcers, Negative which reflex responses are associated with new Reinforcers, and Punishment stimuli that did not previously cause the desired response. 1. A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that on its own in a preceding response. does not cause the desired response. 2. A negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in automatically causes, or elicits, a response. the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. Unconditioned Response: The response that is evoked by the unconditioned stimulus. It is a 3. Punishment refers to a stimulus that reflexive or automatic response. decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again. Conditioned Stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that now causes a response due to 4. Positive punishment weakens a response repeated pairings with the unconditioned through the application of an unpleasant stimulus. stimulus. Conditioned Response: The response that is 5. Negative punishment consists of the removal caused by the conditioned stimulus. of something pleasant. The Basics Of Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing 1. Operant conditioning is learning in which a Life’s Rewards voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or 1. Schedules of reinforcement – different unfavorable consequences. patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following a desired behavior. 2. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a 2. Continuous reinforcement schedule – preceding behavior will be repeated. reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. 3. A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases 3. Partial or intermittent reinforcement the probability that a preceding behavior will schedule – reinforcing a behavior some of the occur again. time it occurs.  transferred into long-term memory, they 4. Fixed-ratio schedule – reinforcement is given become relatively permanent. after a specific number of responses. Long-term memory can be viewed in terms of 5. Variable-ratio schedule – reinforcement memory modules, each of which is related to occurs after a varying number of responses separate memory systems in the brain. For rather than after a fixed number. instance, we can distinguish between declarative memory and procedural memory. 6. Fixed-interval schedule – reinforcement is Declarative memory is further divided in given after a specific amount of time has lapsed episodic memory and semantic memory. and overall response rates are relatively low. Several processes account for memory failure, 7. Variable-interval schedule – the time including decay, interference (both proactive between reinforcements varies around some and retroactive), and cue-dependent forgetting. average, and overall response rates are much higher. Among the techniques for improving memory are the keyword technique to memorize foreign Observational learning language vocabulary; using the encoding 1. Observational learning is learning by specificity phenomenon; organizing text observing the behavior of another person or material and lecture notes; and practice and model. rehearsal, leading to overlearning 2. Bandura’s perspective is referred to as a Thinking is the manipulation of mental social cognitive approach to learning. representations of information. Thinking transforms such representations into novel and 3. Both positive and negative behaviors are different forms, permitting people to answer acquired through observation. questions, solve problems, and reach goals. 4. Observational learning may have a genetic In proactive interference, information learned basis. earlier disrupts the recall of newer material. Chapter 6: Thinking: Memory, In retroactive interference, there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because Cognition and Language of later exposure to different material. Sensory memory, corresponding to each of the Language is the communication of information sensory systems, is the first place where information is saved. through symbols arranged according to systematic rules. Roughly seven (plus or minus two) chunks of information can be transferred and held in Chapter 7: Motivation and Emotion short-term memory. Information in short-term Motivation relates to the factors that direct and memory is held from 15-25 seconds and, if not energize behavior. transferred to long-term memory, is lost. Drive is the motivational tension that energizes Memories are transferred into long-term behavior to fulfill a need. storage through rehearsal. If memories are Homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state, often underlies motivational Attachment marks the social development in drives. infancy. Maslow’s hierarchy suggests that there are five As children become older, the nature of their basic needs: physiological, safety, love and social interaction with peers changes. Initially belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. play occurs relatively independently, but it becomes increasingly cooperative. Only after the more basic needs are fulfilled can a person move toward meeting higher needs. According to Erikson, eight stages of psychosocial development involve people’s Although biological factors, such as the changing interactions and understanding of presence of androgens, estrogens, and themselves and others. progesterone, prime people for sex, almost any kind of stimulus can produce sexual arousal, Piaget’s theory suggests that cognitive depending on a person’s prior experience. development proceeds through four stages in which qualitative changes occur in thinking. Need for achievement refers to the stable, learned characteristic in which a person strives Information-processing approaches suggest that to attain a level of excellence. Need for quantitative changes occur in children’s ability achievement is usually measured through the to organize and manipulate information about Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a series of the world. pictures about which a person writes a story. Vygotsky argued that children’s cognitive The need for affiliation is a concern with development occurs as a consequence of social establishing and maintaining relationships with interactions in which children and others work others, whereas the need for power is a together to solve problems. tendency to seek to exert an impact on others. Adolescence, the developmental stage between The need for power is a tendency to seek to childhood and adulthood, is marked by the exert an impact on others. onset of puberty, the point at which sexual maturity occurs. The age at which puberty Emotions are broadly defined as feelings that begins has implications for the way people view may affect behavior and generally have both a themselves and the way others see them. physiological component and a cognitive component. Moral judgments during adolescence increase in sophistication, according to Kohlberg’s three- Chapter 8: Development level model. Developmental psychology studies growth and change throughout life. Early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. Physical changes occur relatively One fundamental question is the nature- gradually in men and women during adulthood. nurture issue. Intellectual declines are not an inevitable part Heredity defines the upper limits of our growth of aging. and change, whereas the environment affects the degree to which the upper limits are reached. Fluid intelligence does decline with age, and long-term memory abilities are sometimes Chapter 10: Psychological impaired. Disorders Definitions of abnormality include deviation Crystallized intelligence remains steady and in from the average, deviation from the ideal, a some cases actually improves. sense of personal discomfort, the inability to function effectively, and legal conceptions. Chapter 9: Personality and Individual Differences Each perspective offers a unique view of Personality is the pattern of enduring abnormality. characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person. The medical perspective views abnormality as a symptom of an underlying disease. According to psychodynamic theories of personality, much behavior is caused by parts of The psychoanalytic perspectives suggest that personality that are found in the unconscious abnormal behavior stems from childhood and of which we are unaware. conflicts in the unconscious. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that Behavioral approaches view abnormal behavior personality is composed of the id, ego, and as the problem itself. superego. Cognitive approaches suggest faulty cognitions Trait approaches have been used to identify as the source of abnormal behavior. In this relatively enduring dimensions along which view, abnormal behavior can be remedied by people differ from one another—dimensions changing one’s flawed thoughts and beliefs. known as traits. Humanistic approaches stress individual responsibility for behavior, even when that Self-Report Measures of Personality behavior is seen as abnormal. Psychological tests such as the MMPI are standard assessment tools that measure Sociocultural approaches view abnormal behavior objectively. They must be reliable and behavior in terms of difficulties arising from valid. family and other social relationships. Self-report measures ask people about a sample range of their behaviors. These reports are Anxiety disorders are present when a person used to infer the presence of particular experiences so much anxiety that it affects daily personality characteristics. functioning. Practical intelligence is intelligence related to Dissociative disorders are marked by the overall success in living; emotional intelligence separation, or dissociation, of different facets of is the set of skills that underlie the accurate a person’s personality that are usually assessment, evaluation, expression and integrated. Major kinds of dissociative regulation of emotions. disorders include dissociative identity disorder, dissociative amnesia, and dissociative fugue. Intelligence tests have traditionally compared a person’s mental age and chronological age to yield an IQ, or intelligence quotient, score. Mood disorders are characterized by emotional states of depression or euphoria so strong that they intrude on everyday living. Schizophrenia is one of the more severe forms of mental illness. Symptoms of schizophrenia include declines in functioning, thought and language disturbances, perceptual disorders, emotional disturbance, and withdrawal from others. People with personality disorders suffer little or no personal distress, but they do suffer from an inability to function as normal members of society.