APWH Unit 2 Lecture Notes PDF

APWH Unit 2 Lecture Notes Classical Greece, 750 - 336 BCE -- early civilizations in Mediterranean: (a) Minoans (Crete) built Palace of Knossos and influenced Mediterranean culture ~2000 BC (King Minos’ Maze and Minotaur legend) (b) Myceneans (Greek Archipelago) built several advanced c...

APWH Unit 2 Lecture Notes Classical Greece, 750 - 336 BCE -- early civilizations in Mediterranean: (a) Minoans (Crete) built Palace of Knossos and influenced Mediterranean culture ~2000 BC (King Minos’ Maze and Minotaur legend) (b) Myceneans (Greek Archipelago) built several advanced city-states throughout the Mediterranean; engaged in trade with S. Europe, N. Africa, & SW Asia. (c) Initial phases of Bronze Age in Greece 1. Trojan War, 1194 - 1184 BCE: Myceneans (Greeks) fought to control all of the Eastern Aegean Sea; Great heroes emerged on both sides including Achilles (Greece), Hector (Troy), Odysseus (Greece), and Agammenon, who commanded all Greek forces in the war. Troy fell to the Greeks in 1184 after hoplites used the Trojan Horse to enter the gates and burned the city. Rise of Greek City-States, 750 - 336 BCE (a) Greek polis comprises primary political unit in Classical Greece; each polis had a unique government system: Athens = direct democracy; Sparta = dual monarchy (poleis = plural of polis) (b) All Greek city-states identified with Greek culture, religion, language, cuisine, trade--Greeks formed a strong national identity despite never being a single unified political entity. (c) Greek economy based on trade b/c of geography--physical geography is not conducive to large-scale agricultural production (olive oil & wine were important commodities) (d) Greek hoplites (heavily-armed infantry) defended each city-state. Phalanx = “turtle shell” defensive formation was very effective in open combat Sparta’s Military Society (a) Spartan government = dual-monarchy including an oligarchy (council) (b) Virtually unbeatable army; arguably the greatest soldiers in world history; Spartan society was based on military values (c) Spartan boys began military training at age 6. Spartan leaders focused on military strength, built a powerful standing army which included males aged 20-60 in active service. (d) Spartan women ran the household while men served in the military--this afforded Spartan women a greater amount of freedom than their counterparts in other Greek poleis. (e) Free Spartan women: (1) received an education; (2) owned property; (3) were not secluded in their homes; (4) they could also compete in athletic competitions… (f) *One of the most important responsibilities for Spartan women was the inculcation of Spartan values in their children (g) Helots = state-owned slaves responsible for agricultural labor and basic duties throughout Spartan society. The Glory of Athens - Athens underwent a ‘golden age’ between 479 - 429 BCE (a) Athenians developed the first democracy (direct democracy) and were well known for their philosophers & politics  (b) Early Athenian gov’t was a monarchy, greatest early ruler was Solon (638-558 BCE) (c) Solon ended debt slavery in Athens and expanded the political system, despite these reforms Athens eventually became a direct democracy in which every citizen had one vote (citizens = male property owners) (d) Representative democracy developed later consisting of 9 archons (top officials, council of nobles, & citizen assembly) (e) Age of Pericles (461-429 BCE): Pericles reformed Athenian democracy with the “Council of 500” and “People’s Court.” Philosophy In Greece: “The Big Three” -- three great thinkers laid the foundation for Western thought, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. 1. Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE) - developed Socratic Method; considered the “Father of Western Philosophy” 2. Plato (c. 424-347 BCE) - analyzed forms of government and questioned ideas such as good, evil, justice, and beauty; *distrusted democratic process because of Socrates trial and execution 3. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) - wrote on ethics and avoiding extreme behaviors; devised the “Golden Mean”--moderation in all things; also focused on logic and studied the physical world Greek Culture (a) Greek playwrights wrote comedies (Sophocles) and tragedies (Euripides) (b) Homer = blind poet composed Iliad and Odyssey (c) Herodotus = first western historian (“Father of History”) (d) Greek religion (polytheism) included many gods and goddesses with human characteristics (Zeus, Athena, Ares, Hades, Kratos...) (e) Olympic Games (776 BCE--400 CE; 1896 CE--present day) - sports festival in which athletes compete for their respective city-state or nation (f) Greek colonies - population of several city-states grew too large prompting the establishment of colonies in Anatolia, Italy, France, and the Black Sea coast Persia - Persian Empire created by Cyrus the Great between 559-553 BCE. Persian Empire encompassed Anatolia, Mesopotamia, parts of Central Asia, and Northern Egypt. (1) Cyrus the Great (r. 559-529 BCE) first Persian emperor (2) Darius I (r. 522-486 BCE) reorganized imperial government administration. Divided the empire into provinces (satrapies) administered by a satrap (royal governor) (a) Beautified Persian capital of Persepolis (b) Constructed the Royal Road = 1500-mile route linking major urban centers across the empire (c) Coined common currency making trade easier (d) Established caravanserai (inns/markets) along the Royal Road to facilitate trade and commerce. (e) Creates a large bureaucracy to more easily manage imperial administration; including tax collectors, translators, accountants, and governors (satraps) (3) Zoroastrianism (monotheistic) became the official religion of the Persian empire under Darius I. Zarathustra = founder of Zoroastrianism, discussed spiritualism as well as the concept of good v. evil; magi (priests); deity = Ahura Mazda Greco-Persian Wars (Persian Wars), 499-479 BCE - Greeks battled Persians for control of Eastern Mediterranean; four major clashes (1) Ionian Revolt (499 BCE): Ionian Greeks (Anatolia) rebel against Persian rule--aided by Athens and Sparta (2) Battle of Marathon (490 BCE): Athenians defeat Persian invasion under Darius I using “shock combat.” *Philippides runs 26 miles in full armor to declare Greek victory then dies of exhaustion (Greeks later compete in a 26-mile race in his honor = marathon) (3) Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE): 300 Spartans delay Persian army long enough for Greeks to mobilize military forces...tactical victory for Greeks *Leonidas--king of Sparta and commander of the army *Xerxes--Persian emperor leads invasion of Greece (4) Battle of Salamis (479 BCE): major naval engagement; decisive Greek victory forces Persian withdrawal from Greek territory * After the war Athens becomes dominant city-state; creates the Delian League (478-404 BCE), which was a loose alliance of Greek poleis led by Athens Peloponnesian War, 431-404 BCE - Sparta and allies defeat Athens after 27 years of savage combat. (1) Darius II sends the Persian navy to aid Sparta; Persian naval forces provide a means for Spartan soldiers to compete with the strong Athenian navy. (2) Spartans, with the help of allies, eventually defeat Athenians, thus shattering Athenian power in the Eastern Mediterranean. (3) Peloponnesian War destabilizes Greek power in the Eastern Mediterranean region and weakens the Persian Empire Rise of Macedonia - Philip II (359-336 BCE) began the conquest of Greece and founded the League of Corinth; Employs new military technology like catapults to defeat Greek city-states; after Philip is assassinated in 336 BCE, his son Alexander becomes king. Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) - Built the largest empire to date; conquered Greece, Egypt, Persia, Bactria, and parts of northern India. (a) Defeated Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) with innovative tactics such as the pincer movement and flanking maneuvers (b) Founded city of Alexandria, Egypt, which became the center of Hellenistic Civilization (c) Alexander fought his last major battle in Punjab Province, northern India at the Battle of Hydaspes River (326 BCE); Greek victory, but at that point Alexander’s Diadochi (leading generals/advisors) and soldiers were tired and wished to return home. Alexander’s Empire - after his death in 323 BCE from fever (typhus), Alexander’s empire is divided amongst his most powerful generals ( Diadochi ): (1) Cassander rules Greece (2) Ptolemy rules Egypt (3) Nicator rules Persia *Other less prominent commanders received smaller areas to rule The Hellenistic Age, 323-30 BCE Alexander’s greatest legacy was the expansion of Greek culture across north Africa and Asia, which formed the basis for Hellenistic Civilization and brought about the Hellenistic Age. This was an unprecedented period of cultural exchange, learning, scientific discovery, and prosperity. Alexander’s conquests spread Greek culture to Central Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India blending Greek customs and traditions with these other cultures. (a) Euclid (320-260 BCE) devised principles of geometry (b) Archimedes (288-212 BCE) calculated area of a circle, volume of a sphere, and other geometric theorems (c) The Great Library at Alexandria, founded around 295 BCE, became a center of learning containing works by such great thinkers and writers as Homer, Plato, and Socrates. (d) Polybius (c. 208-125 BCE) wrote several history books which chronicled the rise of Rome as a political and military power in the Mediterranean. Rome - Republic to Empire, 509 BCE-476 CE Founded in 509 BCE, the Roman Republic emerged as the dominant power in the Central Mediterranean, eventually extending their control throughout Europe, North Africa, Mesopotamia, and into Central Asia. Romans built their world on three precepts: (1) Military Strength (Roman Legions = 5,000-man unit) (2) Rule of Law (law codes for citizens and non-citizens) (3) Engineering (aqueducts, roads, bridges, “Roman Arch”) Roman Legions - basic unit of Roman military, usually composed of 5,000 to 6,000 men plus auxiliaries, scouts, quartermaster staff, and other logistical support. Noteworthy Roman Legions (Legios) include: Legio III Gallica (founded by Julius Caesar before his conquest of Gaul) Legio VI Victrix (founded by Octavian Caesar--later Emperor Augustus) Legio II Augustus (named after Emperor Augustus--included elite troops) *Roman soldiers were well-trained and highly disciplined (“decimation” as punishment for retreat) Punic Wars, 264-146 BCE - As Rome emerged as the dominant power in the Central Mediterranean, Roman Legions battled the forces of rival Carthage for control of trade routes throughout the region in a series of three savage conflicts. Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)--bitter struggle pitting Roman Legions against Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca’s forces during his invasion of Italy from the north across the Alps. (a) Battle of Cannae, 216 BCE: Hannibal’s most important victory in Italy. Carthaginian forces destroyed two Roman Legions and exposed southern Italy to Carthaginian raids. (b) Battle of Zama, 202 BCE: Roman general Scipio Africanus attacks Carthage drawing Hannibal back to North Africa--Romans defeat Carthaginian army and destroy the city Macedonian Wars, 214-148 BCE - Romans fought several Greek kingdoms for control of Eastern Mediterranean; Roman victory gave them control of the entire Eastern Mediterranean Gallic Wars, 58-50 BCE - Julius Caesar led Roman conquest of Gaul which adds vast new territory to Roman Republic *Battle of Alesia (52 BCE)--decisive Roman victory allowing Romans access to Central Gaul and completing subjugation of the most powerful Gallic kingdoms *Caesar defeats and captures Vercingetorix, leader of the Gallic Federation of Tribes. Roman Legal Tradition “We are governed by laws not men…” Romans prided themselves on their legal system--laws were an important part of Roman life. (a) Established legal systems for citizens and non-citizens (provinces) (b) Separated civil law from criminal law (c) Roman trials included witnesses and juries as well as lawyers (solicitors) to argue each case Roman Engineering and Architecture - Romans built massive structures throughout their lands. These included: all-weather roads, elaborate aqueducts, arenas for games and athletic contests, walls and fortifications to defend important cities and outposts, sturdy bridges spanning waterways and other physical barriers--Roman engineers created a transportation and trade network linking the Republic and later the Empire together. End of the Republic, 46-31 BCE - a series of civil wars weakened the Roman Republic and in 27 BCE Augustus declared Rome an empire. (a) Julius Caesar becomes dictator for life in 46 BCE (b) After Caesar’s assassination, Antony and Octavian compete for power (c) Battle of Actium, 31 BCE--Octavian defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra; consolidates power and declared himself the first Roman emperor in 27 BCE (d) Octavian takes the name “Augustus” (“Exalted One”) Roman Empire, 27 BCE - 476 CE Early Roman emperors bring about a period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana extending from the reign of Augustus (27 BCE) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 CE) Roman territory extends to Britain in the west, Mesopotamia in the east, Gaul in the north, and North Africa in the south; an area of 2.2 million square miles with a population of ~120 million people at its peak, including 60 million citizens (one fifth of the world’s population at the time) Notable Emperors: (a) Augustus (r. 27 BCE-14 CE)--Founded the Empire and arguably Rome’s greatest ruler. (b) Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 CE)--expanded Imperial borders and reorganized the Roman law system; considered one of the great Roman philosophers as well. (c) Constantine (r. 306-337 CE)--legalized Christianity, reunited the Empire and made Constantinople the Roman capital. Roman Religion - official state religion was Roman polytheism for centuries; gods/goddesses and emperor were venerated (1) Jesus (carpenter from Jerusalem) founds Christianity in the first century CE (2) Peter established and organized the Christian Church in the mid-first century CE (3) By 50 CE Paul helps spread Christianity around the Mediterranean World (4) 313 CE Emperor Constantine issues Edict of Milan--legalizing Christianity throughout the Roman Empire (5) 325 CE Church leaders convene Council of Nicaea to reach consensus of beliefs in Christian Church (6) 393 CE Emperor Theodosius proclaims Christianity as the official religion of Rome Roman Decline & Collapse - historians identify four long-term causes for the fall of the Roman Empire. This collapse was helped along by several smaller issues that destabilized and weakened Roman authority throughout the Mediterranean. (1) Economic Troubles: trade slowed and tax revenue decreased due to population decline (2) Social Unrest: smallpox and other epidemics wiped out large portions of the population which lowered agricultural production and led to greater competition for food and resources. Riots broke out across the Empire challenging Imperial administration. (3) Environmental Problems: Rapid, prolonged population growth during the Imperial period destroyed the environment in many highly populated areas. *overgrazing led to erosion *overfarming depleted crop-producing areas *deforestation contributed to erosion and the degradation of fertile farmland (4) Military Defeats: military training broke down, which eroded the strength and effectiveness of the Roman Legions--lack of discipline and proper training resulted in costly defeats. (a) Battle of Adrianople, 378 CE--first time in history Roman armies are defeated in a decisive battle (Emperor Valens KIA). (b) Alaric sacks Rome (410 CE) (c) Attila the Hun raids Roman provinces and frontier settlements (434-453 CE) (d) Odoacer invaded and captured Rome in 476 CE *After the fall of Rome, Western Europe plunged into chaos where several small kingdoms vied for control of old Roman lands--thus establishing the roots of European feudalism. Classical India - two empires dominated South Asia during the Classical Period: Maurya and Gupta ruled large parts of India at different times *Maurya and Gupta wielded centralized authority over most of India; caste system evolved, becoming more complex--added jati (subcastes) *Hinduism supported the caste system which reinforced social and duties as well as gender roles. *New religions founded in eastern and northern India challenged Hinduism and gained support among lower caste groups: (a) Jainism - founded by Mahavir Jain (Mahavira) ~500 BCE, taught reverence for all life, all living things have a soul; rejected caste system; sacred text = Agamas (b) Buddhism - founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) ~530 BCE, preached the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Eightfold Path” while rejecting the caste system; sacred text = Tripitaka; spread rapidly along the Silk Road due in part to ideas of equality *India and China connected by the Silk Road and major sea routes = Indian Ocean and South China Sea allowing for diffusion of ideas between the two civilizations Maurya Empire (322-180 BCE) (1) Chandragupta Maurya (r. 321-297 BCE) founded Mauryan Dynasty & levied heavy taxes while keeping firm control over social and political systems (2) Ashoka Maurya (r. 268-232 BCE) most celebrated Mauryan ruler; (a) converted to Buddhism after conquest of Kalinga (262-261 BCE); (b) installed an efficient tax collecting system; (c) ended slavery & called for fair treatment of servants; (d) built hospitals, orphanages, temples, and infrastructure throughout the empire; (e) commissioned “Rock and Pillar Edicts” across the empire which spread Buddhism, informed people of laws, and helped overall public works projects Gupta Empire (Late 200’s-550 CE) Gupta Period is often described as a “golden age” of Indian civilization because of the many technological and philosophical advancements; Last great Eurasian empire to fall (1) Sri-Gupta founded the Gupta Dynasty in the late third century CE and established the borders of the empire (a) Trade flourished under Gupta--India became popular destination for Silk Road merchant caravans (b) Gupta doctors made many advances in medicine including sophisticated surgical procedures to set broken bones, skin grafts, and the first inoculations (vaccines) (c) Developed numerals 0-9 which were adopted by Arab merchants becoming “Arabic Numerals” and replacing Roman numerals in many places (d) Built universities at Nalanda and Sarnath encouraging higher education and mastery of classical texts, sciences, as well as Buddhist teachings  (e) Religious tolerance practiced throughout the Gupta Empire--Hinduism remained the “unofficial” state religion, however. (f) Gupta government established a “theater state” atmosphere in order to draw people into the empire--elaborate rituals and ceremonies spread Gupta culture *Buddhism spread to China during the Gupta period in India and gained more followers in East Asia and SE Asia than in South Asia Imperial China - Founding of the Qin dynasty ends the Warring States Period by uniting China, establishing the modern borders as well as giving China its name. Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE) (a) United China under one powerful, centralized state founded by Shi Huangdi (“First Emperor”); espoused Legalist doctrine which heavily influenced Qin law codes (b) Started construction of the Great Wall in 215 BCE (c) Further expanded imperial borders to encompass vital food-producing areas in southern China and western China (d) Qin government allowed peasants to own the land they worked (e) Standardized currency along with weights and measures throughout the empire (f) Improved trade with new infrastructure--canals and paved roads contributed to a vast transportation network linking eastern and western provinces *Shi Huangdi commissioned the creation of a “terra-cotta army” to protect his tomb *In 206 BCE Qin general Liu Bang defeated other Qin leaders in a series of battles thus ending the Qin Dynasty and marking the beginning of the… Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) (a) Founded by Liu Bang (Gaozu) (b) Maintained most Qin infrastructure and political organization, but promoted Confucianism over Legalism (Gaozu = “High Ancestor of Han”) (c) Wudi [Han Wudi (r. 141-87 BCE)] most celebrated Han emperor--oversaw a growing economy through expanded trade and a period of peace and prosperity: Pax Sinica (d) Extended Han influence into Central Asia along Silk Road as far west as Bactria; conquered Korea in the north and Vietnam in south (e) Increased trade and opened main overland route across Asia--Silk Road (f) Relocated landless peasants into C. Asia thus creating agricultural colonies which supplied a crop surplus for densely populated eastern provinces (g) Increased silk production and created a luxury goods market (silk became most important commodity in Eurasian trade) (h) Chang’an = Han capital and eastern anchor of the Silk Road, however, growing social unrest forced central government to relocate to Luoyang farther east Han Innovation - science, education, and technological advancements prospered under Han rule: (a) invented paper ~100 CE; (b) calculated 365-day year; (c) improved iron plow; (d) introduced civil-service examination system to find qualified candidates for government service; (e) created national university to train/prepare students for employment *exams and universities created an organized, well-educated bureaucracy in China Decline & Fall of Han Dynasty - epidemics, civil unrest, land inequality, and poor land management led to the decline and eventual collapse of the Han Dynasty (1) Smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague reduced population of China by 25% (2) Poor land management & property inequality led to agricultural issues and low crop yields [Wang Mang (r. 9-23 CE) attempted land reform which offered temporary relief] (3) Peasant uprisings began in 126 CE and greatly weakened Han authority in many rural areas--famine and land distribution issues further destabilized Han government (4) Discontent with the government culminated in the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184-205 CE) during Emperor Ling’s reign--death toll reached several million *Emperor Xian deposed in 220 CE effectively ending the Han dynasty *China divided into 3 separate kingdoms = Three Kingdoms Period (220-280 CE): Wei, Shu, and Wu fought for control of China Smaller Classical Period Empires, 312 BCE - 900 CE (1) Seleucid Empire (312-63 BCE): Remnant of Alexander’s conquest, Hellenistic empire that controlled Bactria, Persia, and parts of Central Asia (2) Parthian Empire (247 BCE-224 CE): conquered most of Seleucid territory, controlled Persia and parts of Central Asia; Rivalled Roman Empire in the East (3) Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE): conquered Parthia and controlled Persia and parts of Central Asia; also rivalled Rome for control of Central Asian trade routes (4) Kushan Empire (30-375 CE): extended throughout Central Asia from Parthia to Northern India; considered a major “cultural melting pot” (5) Jin Dynasty (265-420 CE): Jurchen dynasty that controlled China and other parts of East Asia (6) Mayan Empire (250-900 CE): Mesoamerica; most advanced civilization in the Americas, excelled in sciences and agriculture; soccer/basketball-like game where losers sacrificed to the gods...along with the winners. Global Trade Networks at the End of the Classical Period 1. Silk Road: linked East Asia and Europe; main commodity = silk; most important trade route in world history; Key locations = Chang’an, Samarkand, Bukhara 2. Indian Ocean Maritime System (IOMS): linked lands surrounding the Indian Ocean; mostly sea-routes, created multi-cultural enclaves in hundreds of ports; main commodity = spices; Key locations = Aden, Hormuz, Mogadishu, Guangzhou, Malacca, Calicut 3. Trans-Saharan Caravan Route(s): linked North Africa to Europe, SW Asia, and India; main commodity = gold; Key locations = Timbuktu, Alexandria, Tripoli, Gao 4. Central European Trade Spine: linked northern and southern Europe; main commodity = amber, high quality ceramics; Key locations = Venice, Paris, London, Aachen, Genoa, Bruges