ANT100 Notes PDF

Evolutionary Lecture 1 - Evolutionary Anthropology → What is it? Application of modern evolutionary theory to studies of morphology, ecology, and behavior of human and non human primates. (were gonna use it to understand how bones, skin, and tissue is shaped its overall form, wher...

Evolutionary Lecture 1 - Evolutionary Anthropology → What is it? Application of modern evolutionary theory to studies of morphology, ecology, and behavior of human and non human primates. (were gonna use it to understand how bones, skin, and tissue is shaped its overall form, where it connects and doesn't connect) → 5 Research disciplines in Evolutionary Anthropology 1. Primatology 2. Paleoanthropology 3. Human variation 4. Medical anthropology 5. Forensic anthropology (was on the quiz) Primatology Scientific study of non-human primates Primate anatomy, field studies of wild animals, primate psychology. etc. Primatologists seek to conserve primates in vanishing tropical ecosystems (eg; mouse lemurs in Madagascar) Paleoanthropology Multidisciplinary study of: Biological evolution of human and non-human primates Advent of an changes in human cultural activities Evolutionary history of behaviour in human and non human primates (There are processes involved in biological evolution, but there is no goal, it is not goal oriented Its only about: Eat, Reproduce, Survive) Human Variation  Spatial or temporal variations in human features ex: Geographic and climate variations in body size, skin colour, and eye colour Medical Anthropology How social environmental, and biological factors influence health and illness of individuals at the community, regional, national, and global levels Forensic Anthropology Focuses only on skeletal remains of humans Forensic anthropologists seek to determine the age, sex, stature, ancestry, or any trauma or disease of the deceased (was on the quiz) → Questions about humans and our biology how does evolution work and how does it affect us? what are biological characteristics of our species? what is the physical record of out evolution? → How do evolutionary anthropologists conduct their research? Scientific method State the problem Gather information Form a hypothesis Test the hypothesis Record or analyze data State the conclusion Repeat the work 4 problems limited development of theory of evolution 1. lack of knowledge on age of earth 2. Religious concept of fixity of species  3. lack of scientific method 4. religious notions of separate creations for humans and animals —------------------------------------------------------------ 1. Age of earth → In 1650 earth created in the afternoon of October 23, 4004 B.C. (before christ) → Accepted because church pronouncements haled as secular religious law 1. Fixity of species → By 8th century, scientist say living things created in present form → Species, especially human species, were unchanging and were distinct from each other 1. Lack of scientific method → Many ideas and concepts based on singular observation or fanciful accounts of other travelers 1. Separate creation for humans and animals → Religious doctrine that god created humans separate from and over animals → Humans made in god’s image, so more divinity than animals → Processes that work on animals could not work on us “god-like” humans Work of early naturalists that led to development of evolutionary theory → Carolus Linnaeus (Karl von Linne, 1707-1778) 1st comprehensive classification system for living things (was on the quiz) each living thing named separate species on basis of physical resemblance, species grouped into border categories called genera Binomial Nomenclature First letter of genus is capitalized, like so: Homo Species designation always lower case like so: Sapiens Off-set text: underline if hand-writing (Homo sapiens) or italicize when typing (Home sapiens) → Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1707-1788)  Earths history > 6000 years (ca. 75 000 years). Major issue with contemporary religious authorities Founded biogeography: despite similar environments, different regions have distinct plants and animals → Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) Inheritance of acquired characteristics. “ vital forces” within creatures help them adapt to environment. Acquired traits: developed through use or disuse, passed on future generations Among first to formulate method of origination of new species through use or disuse of organisms → Charles Darwin (1809-1882) self funded naturalist on H.M.S. beagle, scientific expeditions to pacific coast of South America Spent most time on land, collecting specimen, meeting people, and walking Observed incredible variety of living ad especially fossilized creatures He read widely and despite health issues, spoke with variety of people Conclusion: no fixity of species and notion on short, catastrophic geological history for earth must be incorrect (hated slavery) → Variation important in evolution Physical variety in any population of organisms if variety provides advantage to certain individuals, then they may produce more offspring these offspring inherit beneficial variation, so they produce more offspring; variations norm population population may change, perhaps completely new and different species what checks population growth? → How does adaptive change occur? Darwin: individual in a species adapt to environment and long-term adaptation means evolutionary shift in entire population in response to environmental change Darwin's theory on natural selection all extinct species share a common ancestry species evolve by natural selection  natural selection: a process in nature resulting in survival and perpetuation of only those forms of life having certain favorable characteristics that enable them to adapt to their best environment → Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913) Wallace writes Darwin from Malaysia, describing certain aspects theory of natural selections that Darwin had been searching for 20 years Wallace’s short sketch is far massive body of evidence Darwin had collected, but its core ideas were similar Darwin suggested joint presentations of ideas → Three postulates of Darwinian Evolution 1. Struggle for existence: ability of populations to expand is infinite, but environment finite 2. Variation in fitness: Organisms vary, some individuals possess traits enabling them to survive and reproduce more successfully than others in same environment 3. Inheritance of variation: Advantages traits inherited by offspring become more common in succeeding generations. traits that confer traits that confer advantages in survival and reproduction retained in populations: disadvantageous disappear → Darwin's other contributions Darwin avoided implications of general progress and directionality Later works apply evolution to humans and discuss other aspects of trait variation Sexual selection: certain evolutionary traits can be explained by infraspecific competition Why doesn't evolution result in general increase of fitness of life to external world? Reasons: environments always changing relative to organisms, environments usually getting worse natural selection concerned with keeping up, but every species eventually become extinct design limitations in biology “Survival of the fittest” → Herbert Spencer NOT Charles Darwin, although at Wallace’s urging, Darwin did use it in later edition of his book (was on the quiz) → Spencer proclaimed wrongly that a struggle for existence in human society leads, in effect, to its evolution → He argues against policies, such as charity, that might interfere with process of producing fir individuals and institutions Darwin's Evolutions and inheritance major weakness: no explanation on how characteristics inherited Darwin believed that in each individual inheritance from both parents completely blended Darwin initially favored Lamarckian view that environment itself somehow caused favorable variants to appear later, he dropped this idea → Gregor Mendel (1822-84) Priest, Czech Republic Experimented with pea-plants Mendels Method → Why Pea-Plants? 1. Inbred: true breeding lines 2. hybrid: quantity traits 3. observable traits: flower colour, seed colour, etc, 4. Plants small: easy to grow in large numbers: short generation time for several crosses per growing session 5. self-fertilizing, but can do cross fertilization Mendel’s Conclusion Each individual plant carry 2 copies of factor determines trait if plants “breed true” then identical factors; otherwise, one will “mask” other trait published (1866) findings raised little interest Mendelian Traits in Humans? Mendelian Traits Cleft chin (dominant) Check dimples (dominant) Free (dominant) or attached (recessive) earlobes wet (dominant) or dry (recessive) earwax “Non-Mendelian” (multi-gene) Traits eye colour hair colour morons toe  tongue rolling What really happened? Mendel wasn't really sure no understanding of genetics at the time his work forgotten until rediscovery in early 1900s Quiz 1 questions → 5 Research disciplines in Evolutionary Anthropology **** → “Survival of the fittest” who published it? (Herbert Spencer NOT Charles Darwin) -> who made the 1st comprehensive classification system for living things? Carolus Linnaeus → what Forensic anthropologists seek to determine? the age, sex, stature, ancestry, or any trauma or disease of the deceased Lecture 2 - Principles of Evolution Modern synthesis of evolution focuses on how evolution work at level of phenotypes, genes and populations microevolution macroevolution Genetics → Somatic cells: most cells in body (except sex cells) → Gametes - sex cells ( sperm and ovum [egg]) → Cytoplasm - complex mix of membranes, molecules. → Nucleus - Chromosomes pared rod shaped structures in cell nucleus containing genes that transmit traits from generation to generation Human cells; 23 pairs of chromosomes (Kingfisher has 63 pairs) DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid: nucleic acid used to store genetic info that code for the synthesis of proteins 4 bases: adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), & Thymine (T) → where did these nucleases come from? (it comes from outer space) RNA 1. dictate synthesis of proteins that perform a wide variety of functions in body 2. regulate expressions of other genes 3. work with structures in cell (ribosomes) that are critical for manufacture of proteins 4. transport amino acids to ribosomes for the creation of proteins Proteins linear sequence of amino acids ; building blocks of cells each protein has specific function determined by “blueprint” stored in DNA enzymes type of protein that undertake catalysis of all biochemical reaction (eg; digestions) and many more for examples, enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), cytochrome all contribute to oxidative metabolism of ethanol Transcription synthesis of single strand of ribonucleic acid (mRNA); messenger RNA) at unwound section of DNA with on of DNA strands serving as template result: genetic information encoded in DNA is transferred to RNA mRNA carries information in cytoplasm, then protein synthesis occurs via translation Codons genetic info encoded with sequence of 3 nucleotides termed Codons 4 nucleotides of RNA are: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil, which replace thymine in DNA template why uracil Translation  ○ tRNA is info adapter molecule direct interface between amino acid sequence of protein and info in mRNA, therefore it decodes info in mRNA An acceptor stem is a site where a specific amino is attached. Anticodon reads info in mRNA sequence by base pairing Genetics and heredity gene: chemical unit of heredity phenotype - observable physical appearance of organisms; may or may not reflect genotype or total genetic constitutions genotype - the total complement of inherited traits or genes of an organism alleles - one member of a pair of genes homozygous - possessing 2 identical genes of alleles in corresponding location on a pair of chromosomes heterozygous - possessing different genes or alleles in corresponding locations on a pair of chromosomes dominant alleles - allele of gene pair that is always phenotypically expressed in heterozygous form. recessive alleles - allele Mutation error or change in nucleotide sequence randomly occurring process somatic cell mutation vs germ cell mutations in terms of relevance to evolutionary anthropology can be neutral, harmful, or beneficial for organism result of four things → copying errors in cell divisions → exposure in radiation → exposure to mutagens or → exposure to viruses ultimate source of new genetic material in populations population genetics: genetic drift random changes in gene pool overtime 3 important outcomes 1. reduces within population genetic variation 2. more likely to effect small populations 3. increases between population genetic variation movement of genes between populations two important outcomes: 1. initially increases within populations genetic variation  2. eventually reduces between population genetic variation natural selections any consistent difference in fitness among phenotypically difference biological entities deterministic process involving differential reproductive success acts only on existing variations “The Catch” biological evolution can occur without natural selection. adaptation → process and failure process : change in organisms enabling it to better reproduce and survive in environment feature : characteristics that performs functions of utility to organism possessing it Parasites parasitic wasps lay eggs inside host, such as caterpillar eggs change into larvae, witch gorge on various fluids and tissues: but don't kill hosts in time larvae hatch from host antimicrobial resistance: WHO antimicrobial resistance threatens effective prevention and treatment of increasing range of infections caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi AMR is increasingly serious macroevolution large scale changes at or above the special level extends over geological era associated with research on the formation of new taxonomy cladistics a system biological taxonomy based on quantitative analysis of comparative data that is used to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of groups of organisms three major assumptions: 1. there are changes in characteristics within lineages over time 2. all organisms are descended how to do cladistics… cladogram a branching diagram used to illustrate phylogenetic relationships reading a cladogram each internal node represent a recent common ancestor within cladogram may be a number of clades clade; a group of organisms that contains an ancestral taxons of all decent Lecture 3 - Primate Behavior and Ecology primate characteristics primates are mammals (warm-blooded, having hair, and feeding milk to young) NOT PETS OR ACTROS primates differ from most mammals by having: ○ grasping hands and feet ○ collarbone (clavicle) ○ radius and ulna & ○ forward facing eyes and stereoscopic vision primate activity pattern Nocturnal: active at night Diurnal: active during day Crepuscular: active and dawn and dusk Cathemeral: active any time of the day or night Primate diets most primates eat a variety of fruits, insects, flowers and leaves a few species specialize by eating mostly or only leaves, which takes special gut adaptation ti digest, or insects generally, larger bodied species can eat more leaves whereas smaller bodied species can eat more insects Strepsirhine characteristics dental tooth comb  moist rhinarium unfused mandibular and frontal symphyses tapetum lucidum postorbital bar two superfamilies: lemuroidea and lorisoidea Two stepsirhine superfamilies Lemuroidea madagascar and comoro island arboreal quadrupeds and leapers; some are particularly terrestrial many small bodied species are nocturnal female dominance varied diet lorisoidea found throughout sub-saharan African and Southern Asia lorises and galagos arboreal quadrupeds nocturnal varied diet Haplorhine characteristics dry nose retinal fovea postorbital closure fused mandibular and fontal synapses three infraorders: tarsiiformes, platyrrhine, and catarrhine Tarsiiformes one genus (tarsius) found in Southeast Asia (eg; Philippines) small bodied (80-130 g) relatively large eyes, with fused lower leg bones entirely caunivours Platyrrhines (neotropical monkeys) central and South America body mass 110 g - 11.4kg cebidae, atelidae and callitrichidae prehensile tail few species  most entirely arboreal catarrhini (old world monkeys and apes) africa, asia, and Southeast Asia body mass: 1 kg-175 kg ceropithecidae, hylobatidae, and hominidae variety of diets, social organization, and adaptation Body size scaling; area (L x W) and volume (L x W X D) change at different rates animal doubles in size will be eight times heavier small animals have greater heat (energy) loss than larger animals Primate habitats tropical rainforests, dry forests, desert, and savannas primary vs. secondary forests. ecological niche forest microhabitats ○ emergent layer ○ canopy ○ understory Primate evolutionary ecology bottom up processes top-down processes seed dispersal and pollination predation pressure on primates plant defensive adaptation ○ physical ○ chemical primate ranging patterns daily path length day range home range core area territory primate sociality complex social lives, including,  ○ deception ○ female mate choice ○ homosexuality ○ kin recognition ○ warfare ○ friendship primate social grooming more about establishing and maintaining social bonds than hygiene also used to reconcile conflict primate dominance hierarchies social order sustained by ○ aggression ○ affiliation, or ○ other behavior platters primate social organization residence group composition mating system: who mates with whom foraging coherence: who eats with whom philopatry type ○ female philopatry: males leave at sexual maturity ○ male philopatry: females leave at sexual maturity → why do primates live in groups? advantages improved predator protection improved access to food resource defense increased access to mates disadvantages increased predator encounters more mouth to feed increased travel / foraging costs disease transmissions disease transmission: ebola in gorillas in Africa  zaire strain in ebola virus (ZEBOV) in Gabon and congo each human outbreak accompanied by reports of gorilla and chimpanzee carcasses in neighboring forests in 2002 and 2003, ZEBOV killed about 5000 gorillas and an unknown number of chimpanzees in one study area primate conservation habitat disturbance ○ logging ○ agriculture forests fragmentation hunting pressures ○ subsistence vs. economic primate conservation: biology and anthropology if your most cherished and loved person was dying only of hunger, wouldn't you just do anything to save them? SUMMARY → primates are mammals, but with some interesting differences → two suborders: strepsirhines (lemurs & lorises) and haplorhines (monkeys, apes, and humans) → primates exhibit complex patterns of ecology and social behavior → primate conservation issues: habitat disturbance, forest conversion, and haunting Lecture 4 - Primate and Hominid Evolution → Paleocene “primates” geography and climate very different from present day conditions hotter, more humid → paleocene and primates-like mammals: plesiadapiformes  body size: tiny, shrew sized to size of a small dog Niche: likely solitary, nocturnal quadrupeds; well developed sense of smell diet: insects and seeds used to be classified as primates because of primate like teeth and limbs that are adapted for arboreal lifestyle Recent: plesiadapids not primates 1. NOT postorbital bar 2. Claws instead of nails 3. eyes placed on side of the head 4. enlarged incisors → two main Eocene primate families 1. Adapidae body size: 100 g to 6900 g diurnal and nocturnal forums mainly arboreal quadrupeds. somewhere specialized leapers smaller adapids ate mostly fruit and insects, larger forms ate more fruit and leaves led to lemurs?? 1. omomyidae body size: 45 g to 2500 g some nocturnal other diurnal omomyids thought to been specialized leapers teeth: adapted for eating insects and soft fruits, only few species were leaf eaters led to tarsiers?? → brains from Eocene primates the relatively small brain size of [this animal], an arboreal frugivore, implies that neither arboreality nor furgiovory was primarily responsible for the expanded brains of modern primates → oligocene primates three haplorhine features: ○ fused frontal bone ○ full postorbital closure ○ fused mandibular symphysis three taxonomic groups: ○ parapitchecidae ○ propliopithecidae ○ platyrrhini → South American primates  primates appear for first time in fossil record of South America towards late oligocene origins of South American primate unclear may have rafted over from Africa miocene geography and climate zanclean flood or zanclean deluge is theorized to have refilled midetarian sea 5.33 million years ago: 100 million cubic meters → Miocene Primates early miocene (23.0-16.0 MYA), monkeys and apes (e.g. proconsul) apparently confined to Africa mid-miocene (16.0-11.6 MYA) ape like catarrhines (e.g. dryopithecus) widespread and diverse in Europe and Asia late miocene - (11.6-5.3 mYA) apes, (eg, siviapithecus) became ra → Dr. David begun and miocene hominids early ancestors of great apes and humans migrated to Eurasia from Africa - 17 MYA before continents cut off from each other by expansion of Mediterranean sea great apes flourished in Eurasia and their lineage leading to African apes and humans dryopithecus - migrated south into Africa, where populations diverged into lines leading towards great apes, gorillas and chimpanzees one of those lines eventually evolved into ancestors of humans - 6 MYS → pliocene weather and geography land masses still on move - connection between north and South America opened via Panama fluctuations in global temperatures Mediterranean Sea dried up at end of miocene and filled up again in miocene/ pliocene → pliocene primates geography and climate two main taxa: ○ fossil cercopithecinae ○ fossil colobinae phylogenetic relationships: unresolved → transitional forms (apes: humans) 1. modification of the post cranial skeleton for bipedal locomotion 2. shape and size of k9s, especially in male changes so not pointy or blade like, reduction level of sexual dimorphism in k9 size  3. expansion of the brain → what is a hominin? modern human, chimpanzees, and fossil species more closely related to each other that any other living species → morphological trends in hominin evolution mosaic evolution: major evolutionary changes tend to take place in stages, not all at once bipedalism increased brain size ○ intelligence ○ relative vs. absolute → changes in hominin brain size each dot shows the cranial capacity of a million years ago → where did we come from we came from Africa, that's where hominin evolved → transitional forms Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin tugenensis Ardipithecus ramidus Ardipithecus kadabba Kenyanthropus platyops → Ardipithecus ramidus & Ardipithecis kadabba Middle Awash, Ethiopia. A. ramidus: 4.4 MYA. A. kadabba: 5-8-5.6 MYA. Teeth and fragments of various upper and lower bones. Both ape-like (thin enamel) traits and hominin-like traits (canines have reduced sexual dimorphism, bipedalism). Some Key Australopithecines: The First "Real" Hominins Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus aethiopicus  Australopithecus boisei Australopithecus robustus Australopithecus sediba → Australopithecus afarensis Ethiopia (Hadar, Omo, and Fejej) and Tanzania (Laetoli). 4.2-3.0 MYA. Many specimens. Complex morphology exhibiting some ape-like traits (e.g., sagittal crests) and hominin-like traits (e.g., valgus knee). Single, sexually dimorphic species or two species? → Australopithecus afarensis, cont'd Laetoli Footprints 3.6 MYA in Laetoli, Tanzania. Demonstrate that early hominins were bipedal. Big toes hardly diverged from the rest of the foot, unlike in chimpanzees. Gait was "heel-strike" followed by "toe-off"; the way modern humans walk. → Recent A. afarensis Discovery Selam (peace): fossilized skull & skeletal remains of 3-year-old, female. Dated to 3.2 MYA. Hyoid bone: typical ape morphology. Foot & lower limb remains: bipedal locomotion Scapula & hand bones: gorilla-like scapula and long and curved manual phalanges indicate importance of arboreal behavior. → Other Australopithecines Australopithecus aethiopicus: 2.7-2.3 MYA in east Africa. Australopithecus boisei: 2.2-1.2 MYA in east Africa. Australopithecus robustus: 2.0-1.0 MYA in southern Africa. Lecture 4 - Human Evolution and Race Hominin Fossil _ → rise of the genus homo  earliest evolved in Africa most date 2.4 to 1.8 MYA first fossil member of taxons: homo Habilis, which means: handy man some researches suggest that h. Habilis is “junk talons” and that there may be 2 or more species of homo by 2.0 MYA → species in the genius Homo homo habits homo rudolfensis homo erectus homo → Homo habilis from sites in Tanzania, Kenya, and Ethiopia (2.3-1.6 MYA) species designation: brain size (500-900 cm3) and association with stone tools. skeletal morphology similar to contemporaneous australopithecines first species oh homo or junk taxon? may represent 2 or more different species (h. rudolfensis and H. Habilis) → Homo rudolfensis koobi fora, kenya originally considered H. habilis. H. rudolfensis or H. habilis first representative of our genus? Very controversial. → Homo erectus First species in genus Homo found outside Africa (Asia and Southeast Asia). 1.8 MYA-27 KYA. Brain (546-1,251 cm3) and body size (146-185 cm height; 40-68 kg mass) changes in lineage. Controlled use of fire and hunting. Early African specimens may be different species, Homo ergaster. → Homo ergaster East and South Africa 1.8-1.3 MYA. Distinguished from H. erectus by its thinner skull-bones & lack of an obvious supraorbital foramen. Debate on H. erectus or H. ergaster as direct ancestor of modern humans. → homo heidelbergensis  Europe and Africa 700-130 KYA compared to H. Erectus, H. heidelbergensis ○ brain size ○ dentition ○ body size → Homo antecessor Spain. 1.2 MYA - 800 KYA. Controversy surrounding species designation. Type specimen is juvenile. 1st hominin in Europe? → Homo neanderthalensis Europe and Middle East (300 - 35 KYA). Limb bones heavily marked by muscular attachments; thick walls of cortical bone & large joints. Neanderthals extremely muscular, highly active, & athletic by modern human standards. Neanderthals made stone tools, used fire, and were hunters. → genetics of homo neaderthalensis Geneticists able to extract DNA from 3 Neanderthal specimens. Early studies: Genetics of Science Neanderthals versus modern humans point to a 706 KYA separation & considerable genetic variation. Recent studies led by Dr. Svante Pääbo: Half of Neanderthal genome! Demonstrated a range of genetic contribution to non- African modern humans of 1%-4%, likely in Levant. SUPER COOL SCIENCE! → homo naledi discovered 2013 in South Africa not dated as yet body mass and stature = small. bodied human populations Endocranial volume ~ Australopithecus. Skull shape ~ early Homo species. So... skeleton combines primitive features in australopithecines with features known from hominid's → Homo floresiensis Flores Island, Indonesia.  95 - 13 KYA. Small body size (ca. 1.06 m). Small brain size. Primitive and derived features. NOT aberrant individual; rather, unique species. → Homo sapiens ca. 300 KYA in Africa, ca. 150 KYA in Asia/ Middle East, & ca. 50 KYA in Europe. Controlled use of fire. Hunting and gathering. Cultural remains,. including increasingly complex stone tools. → Human Origins Hypotheses Replacement Hypothesis. One wave of human dispersal and replacement of other congeners out of Africa. Modern humans are descendants of African H. sapiens. H. neanderthalensis is evolutionary dead end. → Denisova hominin Denisova Cave: In Russia. Russian archaeologists (& Dr. Viola!) found finger bone of juvenile hominin (X woman) & tooth from young male about 41 KYA. mDNA (bone) and nuclear DNA (tooth analysis) indicated that: modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisova hominin last shared common ancestor around 390K years ago! Denisovans actually a sister group to Neanderthals. Denisovans lived among and interbred with the ancestors of some modern humans in SE Asia. → More DNA Evidence of Complex Admixture. Identified DNA inherited from multiple archaic hominin ancestors and applied it to 1523 geographically diverse individuals, including 35 new Island Melanesian genomes. → More DNA Evidence of Complex Admixture. Ancestors of modern humans interbred with Neanderthals and Denisovans at least four times in course of prehistory. Interbreeding may have given modern humans genes that bolstered immunity to pathogens. → direct evidence of admixture  Genome of Denisova 11 a bone fragment from 13 year old girl from Denisova Cave. Comes from an individual who had a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father! Likely migrations of Neanderthals between eastern and western Eurasia occurred sometime after 120,000 years ago. → Do Humans have Races? In science, race is geographically circumscribed population or set of populations that differ from all other populations of a species. In biology, race is synonymous with subspecies. Subspecies: geographically isolated populations within species. → Racial bundles White bundle ○ pale skin ○ straight or wavy hair ○ noses of narrow to medium width ○ ,medium to tall stature black bundle ○ black or dark brown skin ○ wiry hair ○ thick noses and lips ○ medium stature → Skin Color Adaptation Physical traits we think of as clustering together among particular peoples often have much broader distributions. They continue well outside of geographic areas in which "race" is stereotypically supposed to exist. Examples: dark brown skin is found in sub-Saharan Africans as well as people from southern Asia, Australia, New Guinea and on nearby islands of Melanesia, as well as in much of the Americas. → Skin Color Adaptation Produced by melanin in epidermis Melanin is primary determinant of human skin colour and also found in hair and other body parts. What does melanin do? ○ Ultraviolet radiation protection. ○ Nutrient protection. ○ Vitamin D synthesis. → Are There "Racial" Abilities?  "Racial" abilities not accepted or advocated by evolutionary anthropologists. Why? Because of lack of scientific support for human races or "racial" abilities. Has anyone actually proven racial differences in athletic, intellectual, etc. abilities? NO! Professional athletics perpetuate race myth and issues. → Are There Human Races? No biological or phylogenetic ways to define a human race. Race concepts based on everything from skin colour through region(s) of origin to ethnicity. Crude classification system typically involves self-identification based on up-bringing, culture, ethnicity, etc. Morphological and genetic differences in human "races" much smaller than those needed to consider nonhuman animals subspecies. Lecture 6 - Medical and Forensic Anthropology & Archeology Evo Section → sexual variation just as morphological variation in humans, we gave a fantastic variety of genders and sexual identities and biologies biological sex is a function of chromosomes, gonads, hormones and genitals ○ Old Days: External boys parts or external girl parts. ○ Newer Days: XY (male) or XX (female); Trisomy (XXX, XXY, XVY); Pentasomy (including XXXX, XXYY, XXXXX, XXXXY and XYYYY). ○ New Days: All kinds of (fun) external and internal parts!!! Biological sex is incredibly variable and complicated in plants and animals; don't just look at ours. Unisexual species: only "girls", ", reproducing through parthenogenesis (non-sperm reproduction). In some species, female embracing (pseudo-copulation) needed to induce reproduction. Sequential hermaphroditism: individual changes sex at some point in its life (male> female, female>male, female> hermaphrodite) Develop into males first, and when they mature, they become females. If dominant female is removed from group, largest and most dominant male becomes a female (e.g., Marlin from Finding Nemo). → medical anthropology medical anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that draws upon social, cultural, and linguistic anthropology to better understand those factors which influence health and well being (broadly defined) 1. experience and distribution of illness 2. prevention and treatment of illness 3. healing process 4. social relations and therapy management 5. cultural importance and utilization of pluralistic medical system → medical anthropology and applies anthropology Infectious disease. ○ Caused by microbial agent (e.g., common flu). ○ Co-evolution of humans and pathogens. ○ Death rates by infectious disease between developed countries (low) and developing countries (high). ○ Pandemics: COVID19 (likely zoonotic transmission from bats to humans). ○ Likely 1st case in Hubei ○ Province, China. 704,753,890 cases to date. 7,010,681 deaths to date. ○ Both, underestimates, → vaccination Antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. Ancient technique: 10th-17th Century Chinese & Indian physicians used powdered smallpox scabs to prevent infection: Of children infected, > 80% died from disease. Widespread immunity due to vaccination and herd immunity is largely responsible for worldwide eradication of smallpox and restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus. Anti-vaccination movement: parents (who have been vaccinated) not vaccinating their children due to ignorance (they have no experience with the pathogens) but not lack of intelligence; many have University degrees and equivalent training. Would you want a child to suffer from these? → Antibiotics Antimicrobial drug used in treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in 20th century, contributing to near eradication of some diseases (e.g., STDs, TB, etc.).  Antimicrobial resistance (AMK) threatens effective prevention and treatment of an ever-increasing range of infections caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi. In 2016 an Escherichia coli bacteria "superbug" was identified that is resistance to colistin “last line of defence” antibiotics in humans → medical anthropologist and applied anthropology Chronic disease. Non-reversible pathology. For example: heart disease. "wear and tear" on body. Comparison of death rates by chronic disease between developed (high) and developing countries (low). → Nutritions and Health Malnutrition crisis. Developing nations. Protein malnutrition. Micronutrient malnutrition. Obesity crisis. Developed nations. Complex causes. → Forensic anthropology → forensic anthropology in real life Forensic anthropology is"applied" science. Borrows methods and techniques developed from skeletal biology, osteology, and anatomy; and applies them to cases of forensic importance. Forensic means "legal." Methods and techniques to assess: 1. age 2. sex 3. stature 4. trauma or pathology Help anthropologists understand different populations living all over world at different times throughout history. Apply these methods to unknown modern human remains, with aim of establishing identity or manner of death, we are practicing forensic application of osteology. 1. Assessing Age in Skeletons Younger individual is, more accurately their age can be estimated (up to ca. 25 years). Why: process of ossification proceeds more rapidly at earlier ages, & there more developing bones to examine.  For example: compare state of appearance, union, or epiphyseal union of bones of an individual's skeleton to a table, chart, or graphic that tells ages associated with these events. 1. Assessing Sec in Skeletons Pronounced difference in shape of pelvis. Birth canal larger & rounder in females. Males have narrower pelves, with smaller & less rounded birth canals. 3. Assessing Stature in Skeletons Sexual dimorphism: males & females differ in body size (females ~ 85-95% size of males). Difference in size is seen in every bone of body. Males continue growing longer than females do. By time people reach age 20, females are nearly two years ahead of males in their skeletal maturation. 4. Assessing Pathology or Trauma in Skeletons Lesion (pathologically produced feature of a bone; such as syphilis) vs. bone trauma (hole, break, or other traumatic damage). Overall nature of bone defect, timing of trauma relative to death, and nature of forces that operated on a bone causing a certain trauma. Example: Pre-mortem (defect occurred before death), Peri-mortem (defect occurred around time of death), & Postmortem (defect occurred significantly after time of death). Archeology Section → what is archeology the study of the stuff that makes up our life archeologists study the physical traces of human activities → artifacts an object made, altered, or used by humans in the past → archeological evidence exists at multiple stated (microscopic and macroscopic) Artifacts Features (e.g. hearths, living floors, posthole, foundations) Buildings/Structures Sites and Settlements Sediments Stratification/Stratigraphy eco facts (plant and animal remains) dates → archeological site  the accumulation of artifact, or features, representing a place where people carried our certain activities A concentration of materials that represent past behaviours a construct imposed on landscapes of continuous activity → ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ARE MADE UP OF STRATIGRAPHIC DEPOSITS/STRATIGRAPHY The layers of natural and human-generated deposits that reveal how sites formed and how materials accumulated A series of stratigraphic deposits (strata) make up the stratigraphy (or stratification) of an archaeological site → excavation one of the primary means by witch archeologist gather data → provenience “place of origin” 1. location using X,Y,Z coordinates ○ artifacts, eco facts and features stratigraphic deposists 2. associations provide context without context, we limit what can be said about the past excavation is destructive all that is left is your record DATING: ANOTHER KIND OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Relative dating Methods of dating that put artifacts, strata, or sites in a temporal sequence Can tell which is earlier, which is later No calendar date relative chronology stratigraphy is an ex: of relative dating Absolute dating Methods of dating that can be stated in terms of a calendar date estimate  Most methods provide a calendar date with an error range Ex: 2000 +/ - 50 cal. BP → RADIOCARBON DATING: AN EXAMPLE OF ABSOLUTE DATING 14C unstable carbon isotope Organisms absorb 14C while alive When plants or animals die, intake of carbon stops 14C begins to decay Half-life of 5730 years Half the 14C atoms in a sample will decay in this time → RADIOCARBON DATING Good for wood, shell, animal bones, antler Calibration: 14C dates must be calibrated to account for changes in the amount of 14C in atmosphere through time. Calibrated dates: 14C dates that have been "corrected" to calendar years. Good for dating sites to about 60,000 years. Archeology Lecture 7 - Stone → A brief history of archeology Archeology develops: ○ in later 19th/early 20th C ○ as a part of colonial project Middle East: europeans and Americans want to excavate in the “holy land” and “cradle of civilization” after WWI region controlled by several European powers → Archeology in the early 20th for example: Ur one of the oldest urban centres in the world  located in southern Mesopotamia ○ (present day Iraq) 5500 to 300 BC referenced in Sumerian King List as powerful city → excavation at UR in 1920s major excavation by British/American team large in extent provided sponsoring museums with “display worth”artifacts through a system of portage “to share” between museums and local governments embedded in heritage legislation fosters a new kind of tourism → Early archaeology in North America large scale excavations for “display worthy” artifacts or for personal collection Emblematic of settler-colonialism I.e. white men directly black labourers (or enslaved) to excavate indigenous artifacts and ancestral remains painting depicts example of mid-19th C excavation of burial mound in the south ○ note stratigraphy → archeology is a science By the mid 20th C scientific method provides “impartial” view of the past “Processualism” archaeology’s goal: generating universal ideas of human behaviour → Heritage Legislation Mid-20th C also a time of changing ideas about how archaeology should be managed Heritage laws in North America and many other regions of the world make archaeologists the stewards of the pass ○ State control of what's important, how work is done ○ "for the good of all" → REACTION AGAINST LIMITATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC ARCHAEOLOGY  Post-processualism (late 20 C) ○ Response to processualism ○ No impartial view of the past ○ Socio-political context of archaeology recognized as shaping discipline and interpretations ○ Questioning of Archaeologists as stewards of the past ○ Multi-vocality: "many different voices". Many different narratives can come together to help understand the past → CONTEMPORARY ARCHAEOLOGY Builds on critiques of post-processual archaeology Responding to long-held critiques from Indigenous peoples in settler-colonial nations. Some critiques: Why archaeologists considered the authority to on Indigenous histories? Why is it acceptable for archaeologists to excavate Indigenous sites? Historically little interaction or benefit to Indigenous communities By what right do museums hold ancestral remains and cultural belonging (artifacts)? ~ CONTEMPORARY ARCHAEOLOGY... ~....is collaborative and community engaged (or at least it should be). Shift in emphasis of archaeological enquiry to community needs and interests Requires shift in power dynamic in research Being open to other ways of knowing/other knowledge systems → REPATRIATION Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) NAGPRA US legislation requires federal agencies and federally-funded institutions to repatriate ancestral remains and cultural belongings → REPATRIATION IN CANADA No federal legislation Repatriation policies determined by institutions Ex: U of T Hart House, 2014 Repatriation of Huron-Wendat ancestral remains. → CONTEMPORARY ARCHAEOLOGY IS WORKING TOWARD DECOLONIZATION Decolonization in archaeology means: " the return" of artifacts, ancestral remains, and narratives of the past Recognizes Indigenous sovereignty on lands and over heritage → ARCHAEOLOGY'S ROLE IN IDENTIFYING GRAVES AT FORMER INDIAN RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS Response to Truth and Reconciliation's Calls to Action IRS: a system imposed by Federal Gov't on Indigenous nations whereby children were educated in boarding schools An assimilation project TRC: confirmed at least 3000 children died at residential schools Geophysical methods can locate possible unmarked graves GPR: Ground Penetrating Radar → GROUND PENETRATING RADAR GPR sends radar signals into the ground. If singals hit something solid or there is a change in Stratigraphy, the signal bounces back up The "profiles" show hyberbolic arches where disturbances/solid objects are located → WHAT I WANTED YOU TO GET FROM THIS LECTURE Archaeology is the study of the past through material remains ○ Material remains exist at many different scales Archaeological methods and interpretation Archaeology is undergoing significant shift in practice and purpose ○ Elements of the past are heritage, not just objective focus of enquiry There is nothing apolitical about the past or the practice of archaeology ○ The past is contested → HUMANS ENGAGE WITH STONE IN MANY DIFFERENT WAYS Tools: Lithics Art: Parietal (cave) and portable Traps and Weirs Monuments Houses Field marking features Clam garden features Etc.. Etc.. → EARLIEST STONE TOOLS ~ Archaeological Period: Lower Paleolithic ("old stone age") ~ Pleistocene: a series of ice ages → FLAKED STONE FUNDAMENTALS Earliest stone tools are "flaked tools" manufacturing in this way is called "Flintknapping" ->FLAKED STONE FUNDAMENTALS Platform Bulb of percussion Flake scar → FLAKED STONE FUNDAMENTALS Percussion Flaking (you will see in an upcoming video) Pressure flaking Retouch: secondary flaking that trims or reduces a flake or tool ○ Shaping edge or Repair/resharpening → EARLIEST STONE TOOLS ~ Oldowan https://miro.com/app/board/uXiVLf4-vpc=/ 2.5 million years ago (MYA) to 1.7 MYA Cores and Flakes "Chopper" thought of as "signature" tool → OLDOWAN Named for Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Associated with H. habilis Only found in Africa → OLDOWAN Uniform across space and time Least-cost solution to cutting edge Controlled, sequenced flake removal Carefully selection of raw materials Long-term use of specific tools Used Scavenging and hunting → WHAT DO THE FIRST STONE TOOLS REVEAL ABOUT OUR HOMININ ANCESTORS? Planning and problem solving H.habilis: Abstract idea of tool, but knowledge of steps and skill to make it Learning (social behaviors and communication) Social engagement of multiple individuals Material culture and social life develop together → ACHEULEAN Lithic industry typically associated with H. erectus (Neanderthals (rarely) 1.6 MYA to 100kya (Nash 2016) 1.7MYA to 200kya (Chazan 2018) → WHAT MAKES ACHEULEAN HANDAXES DIFFERENT FROM OLDOWAN CHOPPERS Require more steps in production (more complex) Bifacially worked Symmetrical Can be found at great distances from rock outcrops (where raw material came from) → ACHEULEAN Degree of symmetry changes through time showing a change in skill and knowledge Multi-purpose tool Cutting, sawing, slicing, digging, bashing, boring → MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC 200KYA TO 40KYA Diversity in Genus Homo Neanderthals Ca. 200kya Denisovans Homo floresiensis Modern Humans In Africa between 300 and 100 kya → MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC: MOUSTERIAN Neanderthals Flakes made using Levallois technique Flakes retouched into many tool types: Sidescrapers, points, denticulates → LEVALLOIS TECHNIQUE Prepared core Produces several flakes with distinctive "tortoise shell" appearance Skill and time needed → UPPER PALEOLITHIC (40 KYA UNTIL APPROX. 11 KYA) Modern humans have dispersed around the world Diversity in material culture Common technologies include: 1. Blades: an elongated flake Length 2x its width Elaborate core preparation 2. MICROBLADES AND CORES Blades that are less than 5 cm long Near-global technology From Upper Paleolithic through to at least the last millennium Mass production of blanks Microblades hafted to form a variety of tools 1. PROJECTILE POINTS Spear points (hafted) Many different point types and styles Differences in time and place → CLOVIS POINTS Projectile point found in what is now called North and South America ca. 12,800 to 13,250 cal BP ○ Example of a "fluted" point Part of dominant archaeological idea on peopling of western hemisphere called CLOVIS FIRST HYPOTHESIS Tensions between archaeological and Indigenous narratives of their past → WHAT IS THE CLOVIS-FIRST HYPOTHESIS? An Idea thought to explain when and how people first arrived in the Americas. Premised upon two conditions:  1. Beringla (Bering land bridge) 2. ICE-FREE CORRIDOR Opened somewhere between 15-13.5 kya Travel then possible from Beringia to the south Clovis points found throughout N and S America → WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE PEOPLE WHO MADE CLOVIS POINTS? Typically associated with hunting large terrestrial mammals ○ Mastodons and mammoths Associated with high mobility Thought to represent earliest people in Americas ○ Led to idea of cultural homogeneity at the end of the Pleistocene here →NEW MEXICO FOOTPRINT Organic material in sediments above footprints date to ca. 23,000 years ago → MONTE VERDE, CHILE 14-15kya Mostly wooden and bone tools Pole and skin houses Lots of plant remains Not big-game hunters → CALVERT ISLAND, BC Footprints dated to 13,000 years ago Prints belonging to 28 people walking along high tide line Location also suggests use of boats and marine focus → THE CERUTTI SITE, CALIFORNIA Excavated as part of a paleontological salvage project prior to highway construction Produced broken mastodon bone and broken stone Absolute date of 130kya Holen et al 2017: experiential archaeology shows these could have been made by humans → THE CERUTTI SITE CONTESTED Braje et al. 2017: an example of ○ "Affirming the Consequent"  ○ Just because it could have happened, doesn't mean that it did More unequivocal evidence is needed More unequivocal evidence is needed ○ Tools that look like tools ○ Clear stratigraphic conformation ○ Elimination of other ways that bone might have fractured ○ Evidence for humans in northeast Asia earlier that 50kya → COASTAL MIGRATION THEORY Glacial refugia Marine adaptation "Kelp highway" Lecture 8 - Fire todays class: human relationships with fire first use of control fire ○ implications for human evolution (Dance 2017 reading) Cave art (Hardy 2022) fire as land management too australia North America pottery production smelting and metallurgy → Why is fire important? transforms the properties of materials ○ make food easier to eat, more nutritious ○ creates heat - a release energy ○ changes sociability draws people together: sharing, learning ○ Illuminates dark spaces ○ Can change feeling of a place ○ Repeated visits give a location meaning ○ Ceramics and metallurgy Earliest use of Fire Key questions: Can we distinguish natural from human-controlled fire? What does evidence for controlled fire look life What role does fire play in human evolution? Cooking Hypothesis Wrangham: The Origin of Fire = Origin of Genus Homo Cooking makes many foods more nutritious and easier to eat = more calories from food = more energy for enlarging brains → How do we know hominins first controlled fire? another example of contested evidence: Kobi fora Kenya basin-shaped patches with reddish soils heart from fire oxidizes iron in soils controlled use of fire or burned shrubs? concentration of burned animal bones ○ date to 1.6 MYA → Wonderwerk cave South Africa 1 million years ago found in Acheulean context ash and burnt bone micromorphology controlled use? co formal health. → Micromophology a method of collecting and examining stratigraphic sediments at the microscopic level. ○ cut block ○ soak in resin ○ think section mounted on slide and slide under a microscope → is fire essential human evolution? maybe but for a different reason… evidence to date suggest cooking hypothesis does not hold up ○ change in body and brain size at 2MYA ○ no archaeological evidence for fire at that time  Chazan: fire changes sociability of our hominin ancestors ○ Illumination and extension of "daylight" hours ○ Sitting around a fire: Learning, storytelling, place-making ○ Safety from predators ○ Ritual Cave Paintings in Spain dated ca. 65,000 years old. calcium carbonate Before H. sapiens in region → who were the Neanderthals? human species in Europe and SW Asia 300,000 to 40,000 years ago history of neanderthals research juxtaposes them with us ○ Neander valley, Germany (1856) ○ “cave man” trope ○ ancient but anatomically modern ○ cave painting to modern humans cave art in Europe H.spaiens by 40,000 years ago elaborate depictions of animals and handprints → sensory experience of cave art multi sensory experiences ○ do images appear animated by torch light? sounds as well as visual art → What does cave art mean? caves and cave walls may be liminal space ○ allow transitions between worlds ○ hunting magic ○ fertility Mythogram ○ cave as a whole read as a metaphysical system → fire and environment madjedbebe rock shelter, australia hearths:  ○ charred plant food shows how people adapted to changing environment over 65,000 ○ through glacial and interglacial periods → controlled burns fire sticking farming ○ resource management strategy ○ increase biodiversity in landscapes small scale habitats monitor lizard kangaroo → fire and Technologies fire an essential part of key technology ○ pottery ○ metallurgy how do these technologies change things → Pottery a type of ceramic ○ fired clay ○ particles sinter together form solid material by pressure or heat ○ In archaeology, typically think of vessels ○ Jars, bowls, plates, jugs → How do you make clay vessel? Collect clay from source Remove inclusions Add temper: material added to change properties of clay Shape vessel Decorate and Fire vessel → Upper paleolithic baked clay baked clay objects at Dolni Vestonixe 25000 years old two kilns 2300 clay figures ○ portable art ○ venus figurines → what is a Kiln?  a structure that allows more control over increase and decrease in temperature and oxygen low and high firing vessels → open firing shallow pit fuel underneath and top temp (relatively low firing) → when do people start to make pottery vessels? Over 20,000 years ago China, Japan, and Eastern Russia Ex: Xianrendong Cave Low-fired vessels Used in cooking "Tempered with crushed quartzite and feldspar → why is this find (other like it )significant ? pottery used to be considered part of Neolithic revolution early farming New research shows hunter-gatherers using pottery vessels for 10,000 years before farming implications for storage, food, preparation and consumption → what are people cooking in these early pots? stretch grain analysis shows that: early pottery used to process acorns ○ leach toxins ○ cooking pottery production assosiated with intensive harvesting of acorns ○ long before agriculture → pottery, food, and ritual, in ancient china New manufacturing techniques *Wheel, molds to venerate and communicate with ancestors → Metallurgy The science of the properties of metal 1. Cold hammering 2. Annealing The process of heating metal to reduce its hardness and brittleness 3. Smelting The process of extracting base metals from ore by heating it enough to remove other elements present 4. Casting: pouring molten metal into molds → the earliest metalworking indigenous people of the Great Lakes along the earlier metal workers in the world ○ copper (in its natural state) ○ As early as 7000 years ago Annealing ○ Heating to make malleable and cold hammering → copper working in North America Great Lakes Copper found as far away as lower Mississippi River Copper important in many regions of North America well into the colonial period → Smelting a process to extract metals from ore by heating it beyond its melting point Great Lakes Copper found as far away as lower Mississippi River Copper important in many regions of North America well into the colonial period → alloy mixture of elements (at least one material) Ex: bronze: tin, lead, arsenic added to copper ○ more durable and stronger than copper → The Bronze Age three age system: ○ 19th century classification system ○ sequence: stone, bronze and iron ○ Assumed to go hand-in-hand with writing, specialization, proto-urbanism, etc... ○ Ex: Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, China, ○ etc... → bronze woking in the eurasian steppe Some of the oldest Bronze working: Eurasian Steppe Ca. 5000 years ago Semi-mobile pastoralists and agropastoralists Copper ore deposits → sintashta culture fortified settlements → sintashta and bronze making Furnaces and other indicators of bronze-working found throughout settlement Little indication of social inequality Bronze used in ornaments and weaponry → Bronze making in china from contact in sintashta mold made bronze vessels used in ritual ○ mimic ceramic vessels ○ additions of lead to increase flow of molten bronze ○ Used to serve food and drink in ritual practice ○ Replace ceramic vessels in this context → Iron woking in Africa Seems to challenge three age system Sub-Saharan iron working in several distinct regions between ca. 3000 and 2300 years ago Distinctive smelting techniques Different furnaces across space and time assumptions: technology must come from the middle east iron requires infastructure for high heat can u develop bro technology without bronze → Metals, trade and urbanism in sub saharan Africa Intensified use of metals between 500 and 1500 years ago was connected to several African states and long-distance trade Ex: Jenne-Jeno and Great Zimbabwe → Iron and state formation Iron weaponry central to political expansion of early states in several regions  Ex: West African Edo kingdom of Benin Located in present day Nigeria Rich iron ore deposits allow development of large-scale smelting → Bronze in eco kingdom (Benin) Bronze-making in late 13th C Bronze guilds in kingdom of Benin 16th C bronze-workers make Plaques (Benin Bronzes) decorate royal palaces Historical records LEC 9 - Structure and Building → Why does the built environment matter? not just about meeting physical requirements organizes space, things, and people shaped by / reflect cultural practices ○ expresses ideas to community members and outsiders ○ settlement, mobility, and social and political organizations ○ labor? land ownership? Inheritance? Lecture 10 - Domestication and Cities pt.1 → Domestication one of many relationships between people and plants and animals it is a long process historically contingent ○ no inevitability ○ long period of people experimenting with domestication plants and animals; some experiments are abandoned → other relations with plants and animals?  hunting, gathering, fishing, cultivation of wild plants and animals provide secure food supply can involve people managing landscapes, plants and animals → hunting, gathering, fishing, cultivation of wild plants and animals can be linked withentreknched social inequality, storage, sedentism Ex: Indigenous Nations on the Northwest Coast of North America → Northwest Coast Fish typically very important Anadromous fish Basis of storage economy and source of wealth Pronounced social inequality Nobles, commoners, enslaved "Houses" basis for social, political, economic organization Houses own rights and titles to lands, foods, tangible and intangible property, etc.. Monumental architecture ○ also clam gardens, forest gardens → how do we know if plant / animal remains are wild or domesticated? Arecheobotany: ○ microscopic remains seeds, nuts, grains, etc ○ microscopic remains starch grains and phytoliths zooarcheology ○ animal bones ○ DNA → Phytoliths and example of microscopic evidence Silica structure in plant cell walls → microscopic remains wild grasses have: ○ shattering rachis ○ relatively smaller seeds domesticated grasses have: ○ tough rachis ○ relatively larger seeds → wild vs. domesticated animals domesticated animals. generally: ○ smaller in size and less robust ○ reduction in horns ○ also more docile → Urbanism The process of places becoming and being cities Aggregation/ agglomeration an important step in incipient urbanism ○ Urbanism not inevitable Cities need agriculture! ○ Develop thousands of years later Often related to development of states Power and centralizing authority looks different in different locations 15-11 KYA refers to a wide range of peoples: southwest Asia Economy focused on wild plants and animals Managed landscapes through controlled burns Semi-sedentary to fully sedentary settlements → Natufian settlement Circular, semi-subterranean stone and/or thatch dwelli Sub-floor burials Grinding stones Mortar and pestles Storage pits Roasting/baking ovens → Natufian hunting emphasize on several species of Gezelle control burning to encase Gezelle habitats → Natufian’s → EX OF A NATUFIAN SETTLEMENT ABU HUREYRA, JORDAN A dozen houses Sub-floor burial Evidence for repair and maintenance good Gezelle hunting location gathering and storage and large quantities of wild cereals temporarily abandoned at younger-dryas? → Shubayqa 1, Jordan wild variety of plants harvested ○ grains tubers legumes → DOMESTICATION PROCESS IN MIDDLE EAST Plant domestication takes place within relatively sedentary contexts Pre-Pottery Neolithic-A (PPN-A) 12,000 to 10,500 years ago Wild plants and animals Larger settlements Is Göbekli Tepe an example? → first evidence for domesticated plants Abu Hureyra as a farming settlement Re-occupied in PPNB (10.5-8.7 kya) 5000-6000 people Major architectural changes Public space on rooftops Subfloor burial First domesticated plants: wheat, barley, legumes Increase in abundance of ground stone → DOMESTICATED ANIMALS Ca. 8000 years ago Pens and domesticated animal bones PPN-B to PPN-C Catalhöyük 9100 to 7700 years ago → CATALHÖYÜK Importance of public space, rooftops ○ Entrances via roof Regular maintenance, No separation of sacred and secular space ○ Subfloor burials, artwork, Bucrania in walls household based economy → where are the earliest cities? Mesopotamia land between rivers tigris and Euphrates ○ fertile soils ○ irrigation  ○ no stone → Mesopotamia process of urbanizing begins ca. 7000 years ago ○ Ubaid period ○ temple centres ○ region wide belief system ○ control of ritual, trade, and irrigation ○ no settlement hierarchy ERIDU An Example of a temple centre Recorded in Babylonian mythology *kingship given to people by gods Includes the right to rule over others (including non-relatives) → URBANIZATION IN MESOPOTAMIA 6000 years ago: city-states Uruk period Uruk: the first city 20,000 - 40,000 people Authority over smaller cities and towns in region → URBANIZATION IN MESOPOTAMIA Centres of authority in the Mesopotamian city Ziggurat Palace City-ruler (Ensi) Limits on power City Council → SPECIALIZATION IN MESOPOTAMIAN CITIES Many non-elites were farmers Ruralization 80% of population in cities Ex. of specialists: To build and maintain irrigation systems Craft producers Scribes Navel-rimmed bowls rations? Stradardized bread models → CUNEIFORM Invented in Uruk ca. 5200 years ago Stylus on wet clay Used to write many languages Administration, literature, laws, recipes, prescriptions, letters etc.. Hammurabi's code (3800 years ago) Epic of Gilgamesh (one of the oldest written epics) → RULING CLASS Cities ruled by power elites Ex: Ur, Pu-Abi (4500 years ago) Metals Stone from great distances Afghanistan, Indus valley Retainer sacrifice → DISPERSAL OF DOMESTICATES FROM THE MIDDLE EAST TO INDUS VALLEY Mehrgarh Settlement 8500 years ago *Farming middle eastern plants and raising animals by 7500 years ago → HARAPPAN PERIOD 4600 TO 3900 YEARS AGO City-States develop along Indus River Powerful, unpredictable river Deposits fertile silts Control of water important for agriculture → nature of power at Harappa cities ~ Elites controls: water systems central to large scale agricultural surplus long distance trade ○ meluha religon is also important → Mohenjo Dark largest city state 4000-5000 years old series of, neighbourhoods/ compounds ○ craft speacialist and workshops, multi storied residence and markets ⬇️ latrines, wells, waste management system → Mohenjo Daro Lower town: neighbourhoods acropolis/citadel ○ public works and seemingly elite residence (but no palaces) ○ merchants controlling trade and manufacturing goods ○ standardized weights ○ religion? → public work at mohenjo daro located outside the acropolis at mohenjo daro earlier public water tank in the world closely fitted bricks and bitumen residue = watertight used for religious ceremony? → Harappa and mohenjo dara: graneries storage and administration → Indus Valley rulers administration and some sort of centralization power through stradardization, but no monuments to elite power ○ no palaces, large storehouse, or tombs ○ small cemeteries, few grave goods ○ curtailing of elite power? ○ “practical” attitude to afterlife corporate political strategy ○ could be competing lineages or leader selected from a group of elites? → Northeast china recap: pottery, acorns, and hunter gatherer origins of farming agriculture and the first cities → acorns and early pottery in china technology used to process acorns results in heavy material culture first grinding stones 28kya first pottery:20kya ○ acorn processing ○ boiling culture first wild rice used as temper in pottery ca. 10kya → domesticating plants and animals in northeast china earliest domesticate: millet, yellow river, 10kya rice farming: Yangtze River, ca. 9000 years ago at small, sedentary villages villages get longer, more storage plus domesticated ca. 8000 years ago → urbanism in china begins 4000 years after rice domestication Erlitou (Xia dynasty) used to be seen as first new research: city states in lower yellow river basin 4400-3900 years ago  population decline, violence, and resettlement of lowlands into uplands ○ erlitou becomes important city state → ERLITOU / 3900-3500 YEARS AGO Peak of 4-tiered settlement hierarchy Erlitou capital of city-state Ca. 30,000 people at height Walled urban area Palace complexes with rammed earth platforms Workshops adjacent to palatial zone Prestige goods, including bronze Ritual districts Elaborate elite burials in palace courtyards → URBANISM IN CHINA Structures of importance built on top of rammed earth platforms ○ Labour intensive and denote power of elites → ANYANG Capital of Shang Dynasty ca. 3500 years ago Becomes a territorial state Urban centres less densely populated Become elite centres → ORACLE BONES AND WRITING Anyang: earliest writing Oracle bones on tortoise plastrons Used to communicate with ancestors Royalty and other elites ask personal and political questions First "texts" → DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN WEST AFRICA Pastoralism: Early evidence ca. 5000 years ago Pearl Millet and West African Rice, Sorghum domesticated later Also yams, oil palms Later Middle eastern plants and animals, even Bananas (ca. 3000 years go) → URBANISM IN WEST AFRICA In 1980s West African archaeologists counter colonial narratives about these cities ○ local developments Cities: form out of dense aggregation of villages (mega-house) ○ Ritual function, trade, iron-working lineage-based competition over the course of several hundred years? → ILE IFE, NIGERIA Starts as an aggregation of "mega-House" polities (gundrian 2023) Many city-states varying in size and influence By 9th C AD, lle Ife an important ritual centre in Yoruba world Where first ruler of Yoruba dynasty descended from sky Height of political power 11th to 15th C AD Centre of power shifts, but lle Ife still a city Lecture 11 - Domestication and Urbanism in the Americas Plant domestication in Mesoamerica → Domesticated Squash as early as 10,000 years ago  ex: guila naquitz cave incorporated into a highly mobile settlement practice ○ People otherwise relying on wild plants and animals → Maize Macroscopic: cob with tough rachis, 4 kernel rows, 6250 years ago Microscopic: Starch grains earlier maize domestication in lowlands (ca. 8100 years ago)? → From Teosinte to Maize Teosinte: Maize: Many stalks with tassels One stalk, 1 tassel, 1 or 2 ears and multiple ears As many as 20 rows of kernels 2 kernel rows Many colours Purple colour Husks No husks Soft glumes Hard glumes (casing) → Domesticated Beans Tehuacan Valley 2500 years ago Domesticated beans are/have: More permeable (require less soaking) Non-shattering pods More productive Larger, yield fruit every year → The Three Sisters Foundation of Indigenous diets in Central America, North American (SW/Eastern Woodlands), South America Grown together Complete diet → Mesoamerica  taube 2023 the olmac ○ “mother culture” ○ 3800 to 2600 years ago Settlement hierarchy organized around regal-ritual centres or cities? Palaces, royal tombs, administration buildings, temples, writing system, and art Elites control of trade and agricultural surplus → San Lorenzo First ritual and political centre in Mesoamerica Earliest Olmec regal-ritual centre 7000-8000 people Colossal heads depictions of rulers → plant domestication in the coastal plane squash ca. 8000 years ago cotton: 6000 years ago maize introduces by 6700 years ago → Pyramid centres Ex: Caral (ca.) 5700 years ago Southern coast Residential settlement Ceremonial precinct Wide range of domesticated plants Cotton Pre-Ceramic Emphasis on marine resources Trade: nets for food? Managerial elites? When are the first cities in the Andean region? Debated topic Nazca and Moche 2000-1000 years ago Urban-centres/states or ranked kin-based societies? Nazca Settlements Large, constructed around pyramid complexes Ex: Cahuachi  Residential and 40 mounds/enclosures Moche Religious and political centre Massive pyramids Huaca del Sol Huaca de la Luna standardization of bricks, coordinated labour Depictions of warfare and captive-taking Residential area Moche Research in our department Dr. Ed Swenson Research on Moche settlements, architecture, ritual practices on the north coast Monumental architecture How does it shape social life? Religion in place-making Andean Empires Inka Most recent example, largest empire in Americas Tawantinsuyu Land of four parts Over 80 provinces-linguistic/cultural diversity Capital at Cuzco Cuzco Geographic, political cosmological centre of empir Urban zone of palaces, state bulldings and temples ○ Semi-divine kingship Within walls: 20k people (elites) Massive state-run storehouse Suburbs: commoners, lesser nobles Cuzco and Inca elite Each new sovereign had to acquire own wealth, including palace Expansion of empire Palace=mausoleum at death Panaqa (lineage) Managed properties of deceased kings Inca control of Empire Owned natural resources and storehouses Taxes (agriculture surplus and labour) Farmers work temple and state lands Establishment of provincial centres Collecting taxes, implementing laws Resettlement programs Quipu Record keeping system System of writing? Made and read by "scribes" North America Eastern Agricultural Complex Maize, Beans, and Squash Urbanism Eastern Agricultural Complex Northeast North America Plants domesticated at different times between ca. 5000 and 3800 years ago Knotweed, goosefoot, little barley, maygrass, squashes, sumpweed, and sunflower Carbohydrates Oils/fats Textiles Newark Earthworks: Part of an Indigenous Cultural Landscape Archaeological term: Adena-Hopewell (3000 to 1500 years ago) A religious movement that many different groups of people participate in Shift to Maize, beans, and squash in Northeast Maize in small amounts ca. 2200 years ago Ontario ca. 1500 years ago Major crop by 1000 years ago. Ancestral Wendat Farming villages and towns Large, palisaded settlements (hundreds to 1-2k people) Increasing in size through time Moved every 20-40 years Longhouses: matrilines Maize-beans-squash agriculture 70% of diet-maize Cahokia Urban centre Confluence of Mississippi and Missouri rivers Mississippian archaeological culture Maize-beans-squash famers 4-sided flat-topped mounds Plazas, poles Shared cosmology, material culture Regional variation Cahokia Realignment of existing farming settlements ca. 1050 AD Cosmological principles Monks Mound and plaza Many smaller mound and plaza centres Coordination of labour Population: 5000-10,000 people Thatched roof houses, plazas, central poles Distinctive material culture Cahokia People start to leave Cahokia in the late 13th/early 14th C AD Common explanations: deforestation river diversion flooding New research shows drought, political dissention were significant factors