Anatomy Reviewer Semi-Finals PDF

**[ANATOMY REVIEWER SEMI-FINALS]** **Eyelids or canthus** - Meet at the medial and lateral commissure (canthus) **Eyelashes** - s produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eye **Conjunctiva** -- membrane that lines the eyelids and eyeball **[EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES]** **Lacrimal G...

**[ANATOMY REVIEWER SEMI-FINALS]** **Eyelids or canthus** - Meet at the medial and lateral commissure (canthus) **Eyelashes** - s produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eye **Conjunctiva** -- membrane that lines the eyelids and eyeball **[EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES]** **Lacrimal Gland** -- produces lacrimal fluid, situated on lateral end of each eye. **Extrinsic Eye Muscle** -- six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye **Humors** -- are fluids that fill the interior of the eyeball **Lens**- divides the eye into two chambers, flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure , changing shape **Sclera** -- white connective tissue layer **Cornea** -- Transparent, central anterior portion **Choroid** -- is a blood-rich nutritive layer that contains a pigment, modified anteriorly into two smooth muscle structures. **Iris** -- Regulates amount of light entering eye **Pupil** -- rounded opening in the iris **Retina** -- a layer of photoreceptors cells. containing two layers. - **Outer pigmented layer**-- absorbs light and prevents it from scattering - **Inner Neutral layer** -- contains receptors cells **Optic disc (blind spot)** - is where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball **Rods** -- most are found toward the edges of the retina **Cones** - allow for detailed color vision **Anterion Aqueous segment** -- anterior to the lens, contains aqueous humor, a clear, watery fluid **Posterior Aqueous segment** -- contains vitreous humor, a gel-like substance **Aqueous humor** -- watery fluid found between lens and cornea **Vitreous humor** -- gel-like substance posterior to the lens, prevents the eye from collabsing **Ophthalmoscope** -- instrument used to illuminate the interior of the eyeball and fundus **Emmetropia** -- eye focuses images correctly on the retina **Myopia (nearsightedness)** - Distant objects appear blurry **Hyperopia (farsightedness)** - Near objects are blurry, whereas distant objects are clear **Astigmatism** - Images are blurry **Convergence** - reflexive movement of the eyes medially when we focus on a close object **Photopupillary reflex** - bright light causes pupils to constrict **Accommodation pupillary reflex** - viewing close objects causes pupils to constrict **ANATOMY OF THE EAR** **External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)** -- narrow chamber in the temporal bone **Middle ear cavity (tympanic cavity**) -- air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the temporal bone **Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube)** -- links middle ear cavity with the throat **Internal inner ear** - includes sense organs for hearing and balance **Membranous labyrinth** -- is suspend in perilymph and contains endolymph **Vestibular apparatus** -- equilibrium receptors of the inner ear **STATIC EQUILIBRIUM** **Maculae** -- receptors in the vestibule **Hair cells** -- embedded in the otolithic membrane **Otolithic** -- a tiny stone float in a gel around hair cells **Crista ampullaris -** Responds to angular or rotational movements of the head **Spiral organ of Corti** - located within the cochlear duct **Receptors** -- hair cells on the basilar membrane **Cochlear nerve** -- attached to hair cells transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex **Hearing** -- pathway of vibrations from sound waves **CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND TASTE** **Chemoreceptors** -- stimulated by chemicals in solution **Olfactory hairs** -- with long cilia, detect chemicals **Olfactory receptors** - dissolved in mucus for detection **Papillae** -- the tongue covered with projections **DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE SPECIAL SENSES** **Presbyopia** -- old vision. Results from decreasing lens elasticity **Presbycusis** -- typed of sensorineural deafness that may result from otosclerosis **NERVOUS SYSTEM -- a complex network of nerves and cell** **Sensory input** -- gathering information **Integration** -- process and interpret sensory input **Motor output** -- a response to integrated stimuli **Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) -** Consists of all the nerves that connect the brain and the spinal cord with sensory receptors, muscles and glands. - **Cranial nerves** -- to and from the brain - **Spinal nerves** -- to and from the spinal cord - **Ganglia** -- clusters of neuron cells bodies **Central nervous system** -- it is the communication and coordination system of the body **Autonomic Nervous System** - nerves, and plexuses which carry impulses to smooth muscles, secretory glands and heart muscles. - Sympathetic Nervous System(SNS) - "flight or flight" response - Parasympathetic Nervous System(PNS) - "rest and digest"/ "house-keeping" response **Nervous tissue** -- is made up of two principal cell types **Neuroglia/glial cells** -- insulate, support and protect the neurons **Astrocytes --** transport nutrients to neurons and restrict what substances can enter the brain **Microglia** -- remove cellular debris, wastes and pathogens by phagocytosis from the nerve tissues **Oligodendrocytes** -- CNS structures, forming the myelin sheath **Ependymal Cells** -- it is line ventricle brain and central canal spinal cord **Schwann cells** -- PNS structures, the neuronal axons to form the myelin sheath, called neurilemmal cells **Satellite cells** -- it surrounds neuron cell bodies in ganglia **Neurons** -- cells within the nervous system that transmit information **Irritability** -- process of reacting through a certain stimuli **Conductivity** -- the ability of nerves to transmit impulses **Efferent Neurons or Motor Neurons** - Convey information from the CNS to the muscles and glands **Associative Neurons or Interneurons** - Carry impulses from the sensory neurons to motor neurons. **Afferent Neuron or Sensory Neuron** - Convey information from the periphery of the body to the brain and spinal cord **PARTS OF A NEURON** **Dendrite** -- treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that receive information, transmit electrical stimulation to the soma. **Nucleus** -- Is the archivist and the architect of the cell **Chromosomes** -- DNA molecules organized into structures **Cell body** -- called some, spherical part of the neutron **Axon** -- Main conducting unit of the neuron, long threadlike part of a nerve cell **Node of ranvier** -- the spaces between the myelin coating, gap in the insulating/myelin sheath on rapid conduction **Myelin sheath** -- a fatty substance that surrounds the axon **Synaptic cells --** gap between adjacent neurons **Synapse** -- junction between nerves **Neurotransmitters** -- chemicals substances that make it possible for messages to cross the synapse **Inhibitory** -- prevents activation of neuron **Excitatory** - Leads to an activation of the neuron **Adrenaline** -- also known as epinephrine, under stress, restless and irritable **Noradrenaline** -- also know as the norepinephrine, alertness, high-alert to nervous system, awake-arousal and forming memories **Dopamine** -- inhibitory, motivation, decision-making, movement, and reward **Endorphins** -- short for morphine, in pain reduction and pleasure, opioids **Gamma-amino-butyric-acid** -- major inhibitory of the brain **Acetylcholine** -- linked to alzheimer's disease **Glutamate** -- excitatory, learning and memory long term, potentiation **Serotonin** -- intimately involved in emotion and mood **Nerve impulse transmission** -- have domino effect, chain of chemicals **Depolarization** -- a stimulus depolarizes the neuron's membrane **The Brain** - An intricate mass of soft nervous tissue. **Cerebral cortex** -- the gray matter, the outer cortex **Memory** - Process of storing "old" information the hippocampus of the limbic system **Dura mater** -- lines the inside of the skull **Arachnoid mater** -- resembling a fine cobweb with fluid-filled spaces **Pia mater** - Covers the brain surface itself, consisting of blood vessels **Subdural space** - between the dura mater and arachnoid mater. **Subarachnoid space** - between the arachnoid and pia mater, filled with cerebrospinal fluid **Cerebrospinal fluid** -- liquid shock absorber and source of nutrients **Lumbar puncture/spinal tap** -- the removal of cerebrospinal fluid **Blood-brain barrier** - protects brain by preventing some substances **Cerebrum** -- largest part of the brain, thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory **cerebral cortex** - the outer most layer of the cerebrum. controls the conscious thought, judgment, memory, reasoning and will power **Fissures** - Deep grooves **Longitudinal Fissure** - Divided the two cerebral hemispheres (left and right) **Transverse Fissure** - Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum **Sylvian/Lateral Fissure** - Divides the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes **Frontal Lobe** - Controls the voluntary motor activity **Expressive (motor) speech or broca's area**- ability to speak clearly **Parietal lobe** -- concept formation and abstraction, sensory perception **Temporal lobe** -- ability to hear, processing auditory information and encoding memory **Occipital lobe** -- visual receptive, visual memories **Limbic system** -- located at center of the brain, fear, anger, pleasure and sorrow - **Olfactory bulb** -- explains why the sense of smell Is associated with emotions - **Amygdala** -- influences behavior appropriate to meet the body's need - **Hippocampus** -- involves in memory and learning, recognizes new information and recall - **Parahippocampus** -- helps monitor strong emotions - **Fornix** -- pathway of nerve fibers from hippocampus - **Mamillary body** -- nucleus transmits messages between fornix and thalamus - **Cingulated gyrus** -- area that comprises the limbic cortex - **Septum pellucidum** -- connects the fornix to the corpus **Diencephalon** - Located between the cerebrum and midbrain **Thalamus** - Acts as a relay station for incoming and outgoing nerve impulses **Hypothalamus** - A bundle of nerve fibers connects it to the pituitary gland **Cerebellum** - controls voluntary, motor activities, muscle movements, and position body parts, second largest **Brain stem** -- attached to the spinal cord **Medulla Oblongata** -- bulb shaped, found between pons and the spinal cord - **Cardiac centers** -- regulate heart rate - **Vasomotor centers** - regulate BP - **Respiratory centers** -- regulate breathing - **Reflex centers** -- coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting **Midbrain** -- integrates visual and auditory reflexes **Reticular formation** - skeletal motor movement and spinal reflexes **Reticular-activating system** -- controls the sleep-wake cycle **[Arterial supply via]** Carotid --to\--internal carotid-- into\-- circle of Willis Subclavian \--to-- vertebral -- into-- circle of Willis **Circle of Willis** - vasculature located at base of brain **Anterior cerebral** supplies frontal lobes **Middle cerebral** supplies temporal & parietal lobes **Basilar artery** supplies brainstem & cerebellum - Branch off vertebral to cerebellum **Posterior cerebral** supplies occipital lobes **Nerve** - Bundles of nerve fibers enclosed by connective tissue. **Cranial Nerves** - originate from the brain and brain stem **Spinal nerves** - the spinal cord and connected to a specific segment of the spinal cord **Cervical Plexus** - supply motor movement to muscles of neck and shoulders **Brachial Plexus** - supplies motor movement to shoulder, wrist and hand **Radial nerve** - stimulates the wrist and hand. **Lumbar Plexus** - supplies motor movement to buttocks, anterior leg and thighs **Sacral Plexus** - supplies motor movement to posterior leg and thighs **Sciatic nerve** - passes through the gluteus maximus and down the back of the thigh and leg **Cerebral edema** - Swelling from the inflammatory response **Subdural hematoma** - Collection of blood below the dura **Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)** - a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain **Alzheimer's Disease** - Progressive degenerative brain disease **Endocrine System** - Second controlling system of the body Nervous system is the fast-control system **Endocrinology** - scientific study of hormones and endocrine organs **Growth Hormone** - Play an important role in determining final body size **Dwarfism** - Body proportions are fairly normal **Gigantism** - Individual becomes extremely tall **Acromegaly** - Hypersecretion of GH occurs after long bone growth has ended **Prolactin** - Breast is the only known target in humans **Oxytocin** - powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during labor **Antidiuretic Hormone** - inhibits or prevents urine production **Pineal gland** - Peak levels occur at night and lowest during daylight. epiphysis cerebri **Thyroid gland** - Increase metabolic rate, essential for normal growth and maturation **Goiter** -- enlargement of the thyroid gland **Cretinism** - Hyposecretion of thyroxine **Myxedema** - Physical and mental sluggishness **Grave's Disease** -- Hyperthyroidism **Parathyroid glands** - Increases bone breakdown by osteoclasts **Adrenal glands** - a pair of gland resting on top of each kidney with 2 layers **Adrenal Cortex** - Increase female sexual drives pubic hair and axillary hair growth **PANCREAS** - ISLETS of LANGERHANS **Testes** - houses the Interstitial cells of Leydig **Androgens** - Aid in spermatogenesis MALE **Estrogen** - Aids in uterine and mammary gland development FEMALE **Progesterone** - Decreases muscle tone and peristalsis, maintain pregnancy NEURONS BRAIN  SYNAPSE  Medulla Oblonagata