Anatomy & Physiology 1 2022 PDF - International Academy of Applied Health Inc.

Anatomy & Physiology 1 © 2022 22 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  2 Introduction: In the 21st century, mankind is looking toward the stars while anticipating the future of...

Anatomy & Physiology 1 © 2022 22 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  2 Introduction: In the 21st century, mankind is looking toward the stars while anticipating the future of space travel and the many new worlds that may exist outside our own solar system. However, there exists an equally intriguing universe inside our body. On a microscopic basis, it is as complex as any galaxy and with what we can see and feel the human body is still an amazing, functional galaxy. Before commencing any journey, the traveller must develop a level of knowledge to help them find their way. The primary objective and purpose of the Anatomy & Physiology series 1 through 4 is to provide the student with the broad knowledge base of the structure & function of the human body. This knowledge creates the foundation for an individual to understand how various health treatment techniques they may learn about in other subjects, will impact the body in either a negative for positive manner. By the completion of A&P 4, the participant will know all about their personal ‘galaxy’. Let’s start with an overview of what you will be learning, in this fascinating study of the human body. Anatomy & Physiology 1 Anatomy and Physiology 1 is an introduction course to the human body which includes body descriptions, terminology and basic physiology, such as protein synthesis and cell division. The course continues with the study of the cell including internal cellular structures. The second half of the course begins with the study of individual systems of the human body. The skeletal and muscular systems are introduced covering the internal structure and function of bones and muscles, along with the identification of all 206 bones in the human body and major muscle groups Anatomy & Physiology 2 Anatomy and Physiology 2 is a continued study of the systems of the human body. The body systems covered during this course are the Nervous system which includes some advanced anatomy and physiology to help prepare students for neuroscience 1 and 2, the Endocrine system, the Digestive system and the Reproductive system. Anatomy & Physiology 3 Anatomy and Physiology 3 is a continued study of the systems of the human body. The body systems covered during this course are: the Integumentary System, the Circulatory System, including the blood, blood pressure and pulse points of the body. The Respiratory system and the Urinary system are also studied. Anatomy & Physiology 4 Anatomy and Physiology 4 completes the study of the systems of the human body, which includes the Lymphatic system and the Immune system. Other topics include the Liver, the Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, the Acid and Base Balance and Nutrition and Metabolism. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  3 Study Tips for Success The following tips are intended to help the student achieve success in completing the chosen course of study, within his/her own learning environment. Students differ in their study skills and habits, so it is best to work out a schedule that suits your family, social and employment commitments. By being organized a student can take control of his/her workload, enjoy the learning process and increase the level of success. The following hints are drawn from recommended practices suggested by Carleton and York Universities.  Choose one location – with good lighting, a comfortable/supportive chair and one where distractions will be at a minimum.  Establish a Weekly Schedule – write study times on the calendar so they become part of your weekly planned activities. At the end of each week, assess yourself as to how well you did at meeting the plan.  Understand what you are supposed to do - if in doubt, email or call the Academy  Try to prepare ahead – think about what you want to do and what needs to be done  Set priorities – write down what needs to be done in order of importance  Avoid procrastination – don’t postpone study or work on an assignment until the inspiration hits – just get started! You’ll feel better and become more self-motivated to continue…adopt the phrase, “there’s no time like the present!”  Organize yourself – complete other required household/work responsibilities, before you start your scheduled study time. Have all of your materials ready before you begin a task.  Breakdown tasks – do not be overwhelmed by a project or task, break them down into the smallest and most manageable subparts and then approach each part in small time increments. Check off the subparts as they are completed – this will give you a sense of accomplishment as well as a roadmap to follow through to completion.  Try to stay ahead – this will avoid becoming discouraged and will improve your interest and retention rate. Read ahead on a day during which you have extra study time.  Organize note taking – successful students organize their reading notes immediately after completing them and then they are ready for review at the end of a week.  Try doing more than the bare minimum – a student’s interest in a subject will jump dramatically if he/she sources supplementary material, whether in a library or on the internet.  Review the material weekly – read it once and the level of recall will fall off in a short period of time, but read it twice within the week and the level of recall by your memory is likely to improve.  Be realistic – don’t spread yourself too thin and try to do everything at once, or set unrealistic completion goals.  Read chapter summaries first! – With any reading assignment in a textbook, look to see if there is an ‘outline summary’ of the chapter and read it first. This helps identify the key points and the highlights of the chapter, from the editor’s perspective and it will also help you to focus on the important elements within a chapter. Then read the chapter along with the notes./workbook.  Chat yourself through the reading material - as you read it the 2nd time use your own words to create a picture or map of what you are reading. E.g. spine location in the full body►spine by itself►sections of the spine►individual sections of the spine►joints within the spine.  Reward yourself – celebrate and enjoy the completion of even the smallest of tasks © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  4 Anatomy & Physiology 1 Subject Description: The study of human anatomy begins with an introduction to the structure and function of the body. Students will develop a vocabulary for discussing anatomy, while studying directional terminology, cell and tissue structural units, an overview of the organ systems and a detailed study of the skeletal and muscular systems. Textbooks/Manual: (One required for Anatomy & Physiology 1 to 4) Structure & Function of the Body, 16th edition, Kevin T. Patton PhD. Elsevier Inc., 2020. ISBN 978-0-323-59779-1 (soft-cover) or 978-0-323-59780-7 (hard-cover). It may be ordered from Amazon.ca or purchased at the Academy. The Study Process: In this course, students will commence with the basics of anatomy (the study of body structure) and physiology (the study of body function) along with their inter relationship within our bodies. It is important to review the book’s student resources in the “Active Learning” section at the end of each chapter, which includes study tips, review questions, critical thinking questions and chapter tests (answers to chapter tests in Appendix C). There is also free access to the Evolve online student resources with each NEW textbook purchase. (see inside cover for access code). Details of the digital multi-sensory learning tools can be found in the Preface of your textbook on page xiii. Type Number % value Phase of learning Mid-semester examination 1 40 Chapters 1 to 6 Final examination 1 60 Chapters 1 to 8 Total 100% Pass mark is 70% for the course and a student must pass the final examination with a minimum score of 70%, in order to complete the course. If the student passes the final semester examination and the combined score is not equal to 70 or greater, they must rewrite the mid-semester examination. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  5 Anatomy & Physiology 1 Table of Contents Topic Page Course Outline 6 Part One Section One Structural Levels of the Body 9 Section Two Organ Systems of the Body 25 Section Three The Language of Anatomy 40 Section Four Homeostasis 51 Part Two Section Five The Cell and Movement of Material 59 Part Three Section Six Tissues - Skin and Membranes 81 Mid-semester examination Part Four Section Seven Skeletal System 91 Joints 111 Part Five Section Eight Muscular System 116 Appendix 1 – Section 4 Answers 127 Appendix 2 -Did You Get It? Answers 128 © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  6 Course Outline: Section number Main Topic & Sub-topics Emphasis - Time in % 1. Structural levels of organization 5 2. Organ systems 10  integumentary  skeletal  muscular  nervous  endocrine  cardiovascular  lymphatic  respiratory  digestive  urinary  reproductive 3. Anatomical aspects 5  position  directions  planes  body cavities  regions 4. Homeostasis 5  definition  importance  mechanism  body temperature 5. The cell 20  size, shape and composition  structures and functions  movement of substances across cell membrane  reproduction and heredity (DNA) 6. Tissues 15  epithelial  connective  muscle  nervous © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  7 Course Outline: Section Main Topic & Sub-topics Emphasis - Time in % 7. Skeletal system 20  functions  types of bones  structure of bone and cartilage  bone development  divisions of the skeleton  male and female skeletons  joints 8. Muscular system 20  types of muscle tissue  structure of skeletal muscle  functions of skeletal muscle  fatigue  role of other body systems in movement  motor unit  muscle stimulus  types of skeletal muscle contraction  effects of exercise on muscle  movements produced by skeletal muscle  skeletal muscle groups Objectives: Students will know the: 1. Structural levels of organization of the human body 2. Explanation of homeostasis and its importance 3. Anatomical aspects: positions, directions, planes, body cavities and regions 4. Cell: structure, functions, reproduction and heredity 5. Main kinds of body tissues 6. Skeletal system: structure, composition, function of bones and joints 7. Muscular system: structures, composition, function and the major muscle groups © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  8 Anatomy and Physiology 1 Lessons Academic Advisor and Program Design: Tanya Sparkes, B.A., RMT Design Editor: Andrea Sternberg, B.A., RMT Guidance for Success: Read “How to use this book” in the textbook Preface on page xv and “Tips and shortcuts for surviving and succeeding in A&P” on the very last page of the text. At the beginning of the text chapter learning objectives are listed; they are there in order to give the participant a good idea of what they are expected to learn from studying the material presented in that particular chapter. First step: Always scan read the chapter to familiarize yourself with its content and the concepts being presented. Avoid using highlighters and taking notes during this step and any scan reading of the chapter you undertake. (You will read the relative chapter sections in depth as you proceed through the lesson and then you will have a better idea about what should be highlighted or added to the notes). In addition, throughout each chapter, there are handy study tips (“Quick Check”) offered on significant information, delivered in material you covered in the chapter. Further, throughout each chapter you will see digital references to deepen your understanding of important concepts. (noted by a blue “e” within a black circle) © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  9 Anatomy and Physiology 1 PART ONE Section 1: Structural Levels of Organization Textbook Chapter 1 Initial Activity: Prior to starting each lesson, look at the course outline in this guidebook to assess the level of emphasis and knowledge requirement for that section. The estimates of the percentage weighting columns will provide you with guidance, as they will provide you with the emphasis and focus of the material, to be learned at this stage of your learning. Read the “Outline Summary” on pages 16 & 17 in Chapter 1 of the textbook which provides an ‘Introduction’ to the human body. An audio version of this summary is available online at evolve.elsevier.com. Next skim through Chapter One to familiarize yourself. For the most rewarding results, read a section of the notes, then read the appropriate section in the textbook. In this manner, your understanding, recall and memory of the reading material will improve. You will also not need to read some parts of the textbook content, as it may be content for use later in your study program. Always try to answer the Review Questions and Chapter Test. The answers for the Chapter Test are in Appendix C. The notes will also refer to specific figures (i.e. Figure 1.1) within the text to help you visualize and locate the discussion of the material being presented. Ok, you are ready to begin. Anatomy - Defined as the study of the structure and shape of the body and their parts and, their relationships to one another. (Your body’s framework.) Physiology - Defined as the function of the body –how the body and its parts work to carry out their life-sustaining activities. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  10 Anatomy: ana =a part, throughout tomy = to cut There are many subdivisions: Gross anatomy – large visible, observable structures Microscopic anatomy – only see the cells through a microscope Physiology: physio = nature logy =the study of… Again, there are many subdivisions: Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system Cardiac physiology – function of the heart Key Understanding: “Function always reflects structure.” e.g. Bones can support and protect body organs because they contain hard mineral deposits. e.g. Blood flows in one direction through the heart because the heart has valves which prevent ‘backflow’. e.g. The walls of the lung’s air sacs are very thin and allow the exchange of gases and thus provide oxygen to the body. “A function can only occur if the corresponding structure allows it.” Did You Get It? (Answers in Appendix 2 of class notes) 1. Why would you have a hard time learning and understanding physiology if you did not also understand anatomy? __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Kidney function, bone growth and beating of the heart are all topics of physiology. True ___ False___ © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  11 Gross anatomy  Large structures  Easily observable  Microscopic Anatomy  Very small structures  Can only be viewed with a microscope As you are probably aware, there are many services that must be performed by various organizations/agencies/departments in order for a city to function smoothly, e.g., electricity, water, sewage, transportation systems, health care services, security. This same analogy can be used to understand how parts of the human body are organized and how they fit together in order to support a functional human body. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  12 Listed below are the levels of organization required, in order for a city to function and the corresponding structures in the body required for it to function properly. City Makeup Human Body Relationship  water and air =chemical molecules, organelles  houses =cells  neighbourhoods =tissues  districts/regions =organs Systems: Systems:  health care services =nutrition/food to feed the body  distribution (trucks) =blood & cardiovascular system  security =immune system  suppliers (stores) =respiratory and digestive systems  communication (TV, radio, phone) =nervous and endocrine systems  infrastructure (support) =bones and muscles  waste disposal (sewage) =urinary system and colon  purification =liver and kidneys  recycling =liver Levels of Organization of the Human Body: Refer to textbook Figure 1.2 In the study of the body, it is best to think about it in terms of various categories or classifications. One classification system is known as the Biological Hierarchy of Organization. This hierarchy moves from the simplest level of structural organization, i.e. sequence, to the most complex... micro to macro levels Let’s look at it from this perspective. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  13 “Simplest –Smallest”-Chemical level Organelles carry out functions inside the cells Cells contain the combination of organelles necessary to sustain life. Tissues are groups of cells organized to perform some common function. e.g. muscle tissue contracts to provide movement. Tissues organize into larger functional units called organs. e.g. lungs, heart and liver. Multiple organs combine to form organ systems, each with some overall function. e.g. organs in your cardiovascular system are your heart and your blood vessels. Collectively the organ systems keep you—the organism...alive! “Complex” =sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive There are six levels... to help remember this, think of something with a ‘6’ and write it down here __________________________________________. e.g. 6 pack egg carton, 6 muffins/bagels, 6 pack of soda/pop---interestingly, there are also 6 major food groups: grains, fruits, vegetables, dairy, proteins and oils © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  14 Let’s look at this as if it was our body. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  15 Now let’s look at an overview of those 6 levels of Organization. Levels of organization: Atom  Molecule or Compound  Organelle  Cell  Tissue  Organ  Organ System  Organism 1. Chemistry level Atom: This is the smallest unit of matter that participates in chemical reactions. Molecule: When two or more atoms are joined together. Note: Chapter 2 in your textbook explains the Chemistry of Life. These topics will be covered in Physiology 5. You may read this chapter if you wish to familiarize yourself with the material. 2. Organelle level –molecules such as water and proteins, assemble themselves in specific ways to form organelles, which are the basic components of the microscopic structure of a cell. Organelles will be discussed shortly. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  16 3. Cellular level (Don’t learn all the parts just yet – just familiarize yourself) The cytoplasm is the cell contents outside the nucleus and is the major site of most activities carried out by the cell. Suspended in the cytoplasm fluid are tiny structures called organelles (literally ‘small organs). The organelles are the metabolic machinery of the cell and are highly organized to carry out specific activities for the cell as a whole. e.g. Choice of cars based upon designed activity. Toyota Corolla is a family car, and a Porsche is a sports car –each designed for its specific purpose of activity.  Cells are: o The basic structure and functional units of our body and are its smallest living units. There are several different types and shapes of cells. e.g. simple squamous epithelium, sperm cells, human red blood cells, hair cells, eye cells and teased smooth muscle cells. Not every cell in a multi-cellular organism is the same. Cells must be modified to carry out specialized functions. In the following diagrams, observe the wide variance in shape of the specific cells. (You are not required to learn these cell shapes or their makeup in detail at this time of your studies…they are shown to create your awareness of the different types of cells.) A cell’s life cycle is the series of changes it goes through, from the time it is formed until it reproduces itself. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  17 It includes 2 stages: - interphase, the longer period when the cell grows and carries out its usual activities And - cell division, when the cell reproduces itself by dividing. In an interphase cell about to divide, the genetic material known as ‘DNA’ (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is replicated. Once this important event has occurred, cell division will occur. ‘DNA’ - the fundamental and distinctive characteristics or qualities of someone or something, especially when regarded as unchangeable. Summary: Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism. They are the smallest living units in the human body. Cells need oxygen to live which is delivered to the cells through the circulation of blood. If there is decreased circulation, there will be a reduction in available oxygen and weak cells will die. If this situation is not resolved, the dead cells then begin to deteriorate the quality of the body tissue. This is a primary theory for appreciating the ongoing comments in body care management about ‘creating good circulation or increasing circulation through physical movements/techniques’. Conceptual point: Every living body must maintain its boundaries so that its internal environment remains distinct to its external environment. The external boundary of the body is the skin, known as the Integumentary System. Similarly, every cell is surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  18 4. Tissue level  Tissues: o Groups of similar cells having a common function. Each tissue type has a characteristic role in the body. There are four basic types of tissue in the human body. 1. Epithelium – o This type of tissue can be found in the epidermis of the skin and in surface layers of mucus and serous membranes. (Illustration use only at this time) Tissues differ from each other in the size and shape of their cells, in the amount and kind of material between the cells, and in the special functions they perform to help maintain the body’s survival. The above illustrates how these cells can vary by shape and be identified Epithelial tissue is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface and many of its parts. It also lines a body cavity. Why are they like sheets? Because the epithelial cells are packed close together with little or no intercellular material between them and contain no blood vessels. Two forms occur in the human body: A. Covering and lining epithelium– forms the outer layer of the skin; lines open cavities of the digestive and respiratory systems; covers the walls of organs of the closed ventral body cavity. B. Glandular epithelium– surrounds glands within the body. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  19 2. Muscle tissue o This type of tissue is composed of contractile cells and fibres that effect movement of the body. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  20 3. Connective tissue o This type of tissue connects and supports other tissues in the body. Connective tissues encompass a diverse array of tissue types, that are involved in binding and supporting body structure and tissues. Connective tissue is divided into four main categories: 1. Connective proper  Connective tissue proper has two subclasses: loose and dense. 2. Cartilage 3. Bone 4. Blood 4. Nervous tissue o This tissue makes up the nervous system. Nervous tissue makes up the different parts of our nervous system. It allows us to receive stimuli and process the information. Learn more about this tissue and take a short quiz at the end. Nervous tissue makes up three major parts of our nervous system: nerves, the spinal cord and the brain. Our nervous system consists of two main parts: the peripheral and central nervous systems. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  21 5. Organ level Organs: o Organs or structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissue (four or more tissue types is more common) They have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes. e.g. Heart, kidney, stomach, liver, brain 6. Organ System level System: o Systems consist of related organs having a common function. Organ systems work cooperatively to promote the wellbeing of the entire body. e.g. The heart and the blood vessels of the Cardiovascular system circulate blood continuously to carry oxygen and nutrients to all body cells. o The body consists of 11 organ systems including: o Integumentary o skeletal o muscular o nervous o endocrine o cardiovascular o lymphatic o respiratory o digestive o urinary o reproductive (These will be discussed in another lesson and can be found in chapter 5 of your textbook — at the moment, just familiarize yourself with the names and the areas of the body they operate within.) 7. Organism level (Your full body structure) Organism: A living individual. Composed of the 11 systems of the human body. Other notes/items you would like to highlight for review: __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  22 The structure and function of the body is designed to normally be in a state of homeostasis. While this will be discussed in detail later, the following is a definition to assist in your understanding of the goal of the structure and functioning of the body. Homeostasis Homeostasis means that the internal conditions of the body are in balance or stable. E.g. body temperature, composition and volume of body fluids and other related bodily functions. When studying Anatomy and Physiology, it is helpful to understand some basic biological rules that govern the human body. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  23 These rules will help you understand why the body does what it does. Rule 1: “Life Begins at the Cell” -always keep in mind, all body processes begin at the level of the cell Humans are made of trillions of cells. Each one is at least started as a living unit. Many of our body functions occur within our individual cells, however, our cells also have highly specialized functions, and they communicate with each other. Body processes occur through the coordinated action of groups of cells. Rule 2: “Form Fits Its Function” - this means that all body parts have specific structures that allow them to perform their jobs most efficiently. A part’s shape and organization reflect what it does and, similarly, the job that is needed affects the structure that a part will have. Example: The Heart The heart’s job is to circulate your blood and it does this by constantly pumping your blood along its way. To accomplish this, the heart has receiving chambers (the atria) and sending chambers (the ventricles). Some of the blood returning to the heart comes from the lungs, carrying a rich supply of oxygen and is ready to head out through your body to feed the cells. The rest of the blood returning to your heart has just been to your cells and dropped off its supply of oxygen and thus must go to the lungs to get more. To accomplish these actions, your heart is divided into a left side and a right side, to allow your blood to travel in two different pathways. The right side of the heart will carry the deoxygenated blood out to the lungs. The left side of the heart sends the freshly oxygenated blood out to your body’s cells. Your blood circulates best, if it is always moving in the same direction---forward. To accomplish this, the heart has ‘valves’ as part of its anatomy.  One set of valves, or doorways, allows blood to enter your ‘ventricles’ and the other set of valves allows it to leave the chambers. To fill the ventricles, the entrance doors are open and the exit doors are closed. Once the chambers are filled, the entrance doors are closed, so the blood must move forward and this pushes open the exit doors, so the blood can leave. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  24 Thus, the heart is suited to its function and is a prime example of “Form Fits Its Function”. Points to remember... You will quickly determine what a body structure does but here are three things to always ask yourself about these structures: 1. How is this structure built? 2. What is its job and how is it performed? 3. How does the structure and function fit together? When you examine a structure, the way it is built should give you clues about what it does. Similarly, if you know what a structure does, you should be better able to understand how and why it is built the way it is. Regardless, whether we are examining it as a city or the human body, all of the parts, from smallest individual substances to largest systems are arranged that together, they can perform complex functions for the operational whole to work smoothly. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  25 Section 2: Organ Systems of the Body Textbook Chapter 5 Based on the “city” model of the body introduced at the beginning of Section 1 in Lesson 1, please review the following information. o Cells of the body are organized into neighbourhoods called ‘tissues’. o In turn, tissues are located in regions/districts of the city (i.e. body) called organs. o Finally, the organs are connected and serviced by a network of highways, roads and streets called systems. o In fact, organs are also functional parts of these systems. Just as a city cannot function without its systems and their services (please review these services at the beginning of Lesson 1), the human body requires all of its systems in order to survive as well. o Unlike the city, there are two extra systems in the body –  the integumentary and reproductive systems Activity: o Chapter 5 in textbook – There is a great summary of each organ system at the end of the chapter in the Outline Summary. o The material in this chapter is very well explained and contains a number of excellent sketches to locate the various organs and systems discussed. o Pay particular attention to Figures 5-1 through 5-12, as they summarize the body’s workings at a glance. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  26 Organ Systems of the Body There are 11 major organ systems that compose the human body. These systems are the largest and most complex structural units, which is in contrast to the cells, which are the smallest. Integumentary system  The skin is the largest and most important organ in this system  Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of cutaneous receptors(pain, pressure) as well as sweat and oil glands.  Protects deeper tissue from injury  Helps regulate body temperature  Location of cutaneous nerve receptors The secretion of sweat is stimulated both by high temperatures and by hormones, especially male hormon © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  27 Skeletal system o System includes not only bones but also related tissues, such as cartilage and ligaments that together provide the body with a rigid framework for muscle support and protection of body organs.  Protects and supports body organs  Provides muscle attachment for movement  Site of blood cell formation  Bones store minerals © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  28 Muscular system  Individual skeletal muscles (voluntary) are the organs of the muscular system. Muscles produce movement, maintain body posture and generate the heat required for maintaining a constant core body temperature. Smooth muscle (involuntary) is found in blood vessel walls, other tubular structures and in the linings of hollow organs such as the stomach and small intestine. The Cardiac muscle is the specialized muscle tissue of the heart.  Produces movement  Maintains posture  Produces heat © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  29 Nervous system  The Brain, spinal cord and nerves are the organs of this system  Communication/Integration/Control/Recognition of sensory stimuli  Fast-acting control system  Responds to internal and external change  Activates muscles and glands © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  30 Endocrine system  Composed of specialized glands that secrete chemicals, known as hormones, directly into the blood- which regulate processes such as growth, reproduction and nutrient use by body cells.  Skull -pituitary gland/pineal gland/hypothalamus  Neck -thyroid & parathyroid glands  Thoracic Cavity –thymus gland  Abdominal Cavity – adrenal & pancreas glands  Growth  Reproduction  Metabolism  Secretes regulatory hormones © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  31 Cardiovascular (circulatory) system  Made up of the heart and a closed system or arteries, veins and capillaries  A transportation system: oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, cell waste, heat and immune defense cells  Blood vessels transport the blood which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wastes; the heart pumps the blood through our body. Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart: o Oxygen o Carbon dioxide o Nutrients © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  32 Lymphatic/Immune Systems This system is composed of lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels and specialized lymphatic organs such as the tonsils, thymus, spleen and white blood cells. The functions of the system include the movement of fluids and certain large molecules from the tissue spaces around cells and movement of fat-related nutrients from the digestive tract into the blood. It is involved in the functioning of the immune system, which has an important role in defending the body against disease.  Returns fluids to blood vessels  Cleanses the blood  Involved in immunity o Some of the liquid part of the blood (called plasma) leaks from the bloodstream into the tissues to form what is referred to as body fluid. o Most of this fluid cannot return to the blood because of the opposing blood pressure in the bloodstream. o When you feel like you are “retaining water” this means that this liquid has not been removed from the body fluid surrounding body tissues. o The removal of excess water is the job of the lymphatic system. o In essence, this system acts like a “shop vacuum” that sucks up unneeded water lying around. So, the lymphatic system is a one-way system, which has entrances at the beginning of small ducts. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  33 Notice that the lymphatic system looks like a vast river system with several little streams flowing into the wider channels going up the centre of the abdomen. o At the beginning of each of these little streams or small lymphatic ducts, the end is open just like the end of a shop vac hose; it is able to suck up the excess water in the tissue. o The excess water that enters the lymphatic duct is now called lymph. o The flow of lymph is upwards in the legs and arms, inwards in the torso and downwards from the head and neck. It is eventually returned to the bloodstream in the vein below the collar bone (on both the left and right sides of the body). In addition, examine the circulatory/cardiovascular system in Figure 5-6 and compare it with the diagram of the lymphatic system in Figure 5-7. o The circulatory system is a closed system with arteries (red) taking blood away from the heart and veins (blue) returning it to the heart. o There is no entrance or exit to this system. o On the other hand, the lymphatic system is illustrated in only one colour because the lymph enters the system of ducts and the flow of lymph is one-way (it is not a closed system). o Before you leave these diagrams, note that the lymphatic system is the constant companion to the circulatory system; where the circulatory system goes, the lymphatic system follows in most regions (there are a few exceptions which will be explored later in the Anatomy-Physiology 4 course). © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  34 Respiratory system  These organs include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs  Keeps blood supplied with oxygen  Together these organs permit the movement of air into the tiny, thin-walled sacs of the lungs called alveoli, wherein oxygen from the air is exchanged for the waste product known as carbon dioxide.  Carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs by the blood so that it can be eliminated from the body. keeps blood supplied with oxygen removes carbon dioxide © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  35 Digestive system  Primary and secondary organs work together to ensure proper digestion and absorption of nutrients  Primary organs include the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anal canal.  Secondary or accessory organs include the teeth, salivary glands, tongue, liver, gallbladder, pancreas and appendix  Primary organs of the digestive system form a tube, open at both ends, called the gastrointestinal tube – also known as the GI tract  Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.  Food that enters the tract is digested, its nutrients are absorbed and the undigested residue is eliminated from the body as waste material called feces  Accessory organs assist in the mechanical & chemical breakdown of ingested food….the appendix is not functionally important in the digestive system  Breaks down food  Allows for nutrient absorption into blood  Eliminates indigestible material © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  36 Urinary system  These organs include the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra  Kidneys clear or clean the blood of nitrogen-containing waste products continually produced by the metabolism of nutrients in the body cells—they also help maintain the electrolyte, water and acid base balances of the body  Waste from the kidneys is called ‘urine’ and once it leaves the kidneys it flows through the ureters into the urinary bladder for temporary storage. Then from the bladder to the outside of the body through the urethra which then passes through the penis in the male and urinary passage in the female  Waste is also eliminated from the body through the skin, intestinal tract and lungs Eliminates nitrogenous wastes Maintains acid-base balance Regulates water and electrolytes © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  37 Reproductive system (Male/Female)  Male system includes the gonads/testes, which produce the sex cells (sperm), the genital ducts (also known as vas deferens) and the prostate. The penis and the scrotum are supporting structures and together are known as the genitalia.  Female gonads are the ovaries. Accessory organs include the uterus, uterine or fallopian tubes and the vagina. The term ‘vulva’ is used to describe female genitalia and the breasts or mammary glands are also classified as external accessory sex organs. The reproductive organs in the female produce the sex cells or ova, which receive the sperm, permit fertilization and transfer of the sex cells to the uterus; allow for development, birth and nourishment of offspring through the mammary glands.  Reproductive  Produces offspring © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  38 Exercise – What are the functions of the following body systems? 1. Integumentary System: 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 4. _____________________________ 2. Skeletal System: 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 4. _____________________________ 3. Muscular System: 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 4. Nervous System 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 5. Endocrine System 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 6. Cardiovascular 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 7. Lymphatic + Immune Systems 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 8. Respiratory System 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 9. Digestive System 1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 10. Urinary System 1. _____________________________ 2. _____________________________ 3. _____________________________ 11. Reproductive System 1. _____________________________ © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  39 Did You Get It? (Answers in Appendix 2 of class notes). 3. At which level of structure organization is the stomach? __________________________________ 4. Which organ system includes the trachea, lungs, nasal cavity and bronchi?___________________ 5. Which system functions to remove wastes and help regulates blood pressure?________________ 6. In addition to being able to metabolize, grow, digest food and excrete wastes, what other functions must an organism perform to survive? ___________________________________________________________ 7. a. Oxygen is a survival need. Why is it so important? __________________________________________ b. In which life function does oxygen participate directly? ______________________________________ Optional Activity 1: Photocopy each Figure of Organ systems and cover the various names of organs on the figures. Then practice naming the organs in a clockwise sequence around the body for each system. Optional Activity 2: Organize the first letter of each system into a sequence that will help you remember all systems. Write out the sequence in a vertical column and then write each system name to the right. Practice repeating the sequence and the name: © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  40 Section 3: The Language of Anatomy Textbook Chapter 1 To ensure the body's health and survival, parts of the body are assembled according to a complex plan similar to that found in a city. Yet they all work together to yield a unified functional body. Information related to this section can be found on pages 4 through 10 in your textbook. Refer to Table 1.2 Descriptive Terms for Body Regions. Mapping out the Body: In order to locate a component in the city on a map, you must know some information about its location and directions on how to find it. Similarly, in the human body, you can locate body components by learning their anatomical position and anatomical directions. Anatomical Position Anatomical position is the initial reference position, which describes body parts and body regions, which gives meaning to specific directional terms.  The anatomical position for the human body is: The body is erect (standing position, with head and toes facing forward and with the arms hanging at the sides, with the palms of the hands facing forward. (Figure 1-3) Exercise: Stand and assume the anatomical position, notice that it is not particularly comfortable, because you must hold your hands unnaturally forward instead of allowing them to hang partially cupped toward your thighs. Anatomical Directions Figure 1-4 The following are directional terms used to describe relative positions of body parts: Anatomical Position Terms: Superior - Towards the head or above other structures –also known as cephalad Inferior - Towards the feet or below other structures –also known as caudal Anterior - Front or ‘in front of’ –e.g. face, chest, abdomen Posterior - Back or ‘in back of’ –e.g. backside of body Medial - Towards the midline of the body –closer to the body midline Lateral - Towards the side of the body or away from the midline The following do not relate to a particular body position: Proximal - Toward or nearest to the trunk of the body e.g. knee is proximal to the toes Distal - Away from or farthest from the trunk of the body-fingers are distal to the elbow Superficial - Nearer to the surface of the skin e.g. skeletal muscles are superficial to the skin Deep - Farther away from the body surface of the skin Dorsal –The back or backside of any other structures-interchangeable with posterior Ventral -Bellyside-interchangeable with anterior © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  41 Exercise: Stand, with your head and feet facing forward. Use your hands to illustrate the direction of each term as it relates to your body. (Use a full mirror if one is available.)  Superior  Inferior  Anterior  Posterior  Medial  Lateral  Proximal  Distal  Superficial  Deep Examples: The eye is lateral to the nose. The eyes are closer to the medial plane. The nose is superior to the mouth. The nose is on the anterior side of the head. The posterior side of the head is frequently covered in hair. The neck is medial to the shoulder. The shoulder blades are dorsal to the ribs. The elbow is proximal to the wrist. The navel is on the ventral aspect of the body The ankle is distal to the knee. All toes are equally distal to one another. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  42 Look at the following regional terms and, in your own words, describe where they are in the body. Anterior_________________________________________________________________ Posterior_________________________________________________________________ Medial___________________________________________________________________ Lateral___________________________________________________________________ Proximal_________________________________________________________________ Distal____________________________________________________________________ Superior__________________________________________________________________ Inferior___________________________________________________________________ Superficial________________________________________________________________ Deep_____________________________________________________________________ Check-in: What is the anatomical position and why is it for a student to understand it? Verbalize your answer and try to be as complete as possible. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  43 Body Planes: Figure 1-4 Body planes or body sections are smaller divisions of the body as a whole. Sagittal plane: Vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts. Mid-sagittal (median) plane: divides the body in equal halves. Frontal plane: Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. Also called the coronal plane. Transverse plane: Horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  44 Body Cavities The body as a whole can be divided into two major portions called the Axial and Appendicular portions. Figure 1-5  The Axial portion consists of the head, neck and torso (or trunk)  The Appendicular portion consists of the upper and lower extremities Within the Axial portion of the body there are two large cavities: Dorsal & Ventral 1. Dorsal Body Cavity  This cavity is subdivided into a cranial and spinal cavity  The cranial cavity contains the brain and is encased by the skull  The spinal cavity contains the spinal cord  Since the spinal cord is essentially a continuation of the brain, the cranial and spinal cavities are continuous with one another © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  45 2. Ventral Body Cavity  This cavity is sub-divides into the Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavity. The Thoracic cavity is divided into lateral (right and left) pleural cavities, which houses the lungs, and a mid-cavity called the mediastinum which houses the heart and remaining thoracic organs (esophagus and trachea). The Abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into a superior abdominal cavity which houses the stomach, intestines, spleen and liver and an inferior cavity which houses the bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum. The Thoracic cavity is separated from the Abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm. Note: There are other body cavities such as: Oral and digestive, nasal, orbital, middle ear and synovial/joint cavities found in joints, in areas like the knee and elbow. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  46 Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants Figure 1-6 Medical personnel use a simpler way to locate organs. The 4 abdominal quadrants have very easy lines to remember. One line is vertical and it is on the midline which divides the abdomen into left and right. (Don't forget: it's the client’s left or right!). The other line which divided the abdomen into upper (superior) and lower (inferior), intersects the midline at a visible landmark. Can you guess it? The belly button, or navel. They divide the abdominopelvic cavity into four quadrants: 1. right upper (superior) 2. left upper (superior) 3. right lower (inferior) 4. left lower (inferior) © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  47 Nine Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity Figure 1-7 Because this area is large and contains several organs, it helps to divide the cavity into smaller areas of focus. “The regions of the Abdominopelvic cavity are not physically separated, however, Anatomists have divided the abdominopelvic cavity into nine regions, for easy location of organs.”  Upper abdominopelvic region is divided into three regions called: o right Hypochondriac o left Hypochondriac o Epigastric region.  Middle abdominopelvic region is divided into: o right Lumbar o left Lumbar o Umbilical region  Lower abdominopelvic region is divided into: o right Iliac o left Iliac o Hypogastric region © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  48 Reinforcement Exercise: Label the body cavities and then draw on and label the nine abdominopelvic regions. The development of your critical thinking skills is an important attribute because it helps you transform static information into applicable/usable information. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  49 Activity: Using Figure 1-9, ask a friend, classmate, or member of your family, to state an area using everyday language phrases (in brackets), by picking them out at random. Then orate the proper term for the relevant body region. If you do not have anyone available, use a tape/digital recorder and record the area using everyday words onto the machine and then play it back to yourself, and write down the proper body region term. This will let you grade your own performance at the end of the mini session. Study Activity Use a piece of paper to cover up the answers and test your absorption Name the 2 main body cavities and their The dorsal cavity contains the cranial and vertebral cavities; the main subdivisions: ventral cavity contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities; the abdominopelvic cavity contains the abdominal cavity & the pelvic cavity. Which organs are contained in the dorsal The brain is contained in the cranial cavity; the spinal cord is body cavity? contained in the vertebral cavity; the dorsal body cavity is said to contain the central nervous system (CNS). What does the thoracic cavity contain? The lungs (surrounded by the pleural cavity) and the superior mediastinum which contains the heart (surrounded by the pericardial cavity), trachea, and esophagus. The mediastinum is the space and organs between the lungs. What separates the thoracic cavity from The diaphragm. the abdominopelvic cavity? What separates the abdominal cavity from There is no physical barrier between these. the pelvic cavity? What does the abdominal cavity contain? Intestines, liver, spleen, stomach, pancreas. What does the pelvic cavity contain? The urinary and genital structures. Starting from left to right, top to bottom, Right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, in anatomical position, name the 9 umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac. abdominal regions: Describe organs, found in the superior 3 Right hypochondriac: liver, gallbladder; abdominal regions, by region: epigastric: stomach, pancreas, part of duodenum; left hypochondriac: spleen. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  50 Describe organs found in the umbilical Right lumbar: ascending colon; umbilical: small intestine, and lumbar regions: transverse colon; left lumbar: descending colon Describe organs found in the inferior 3 Right iliac: cecum; hypogastric: urinary bladder, rectum, initial part abdominal regions, by region: of the sigmoid colon; left iliac: inferior part of descending colon Describe organs found by abdominal Right upper: liver, gallbladder; left upper: spleen; quadrant: right lower: appendix; left lower: descending colon Who is commonly affected by gallbladder 3 F’s: fat, female, forty. disease (gallstones)? Did You Get It? (Answers in Appendix 2) 8. Identify which of the following organs are in the abdominopelvic cavity: Y/N Spinal Cord Y/N Small Intestine Y/N Uterus Y/N Heart 9. Joe went to the emergency room, where he complained of severe pains in the lower right quadrant of his abdomen. What might be his problem? _____________________________________________________________________________________ © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  51 Section 4: Homeostasis Textbook Chapter 1 Homeostasis is discussed beginning on page 10 of your textbook. A summary can be found on page 17. Homeostasis means that the internal conditions (e.g., body temperature, composition and volume of body fluids, etc.) of the body, are in balance or stable. It is essential to the body’s survival. Understanding: Homeostasis – ‘unchanging’ ‘to stay the same’ Homeo = the same Stasis = standing still It is the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal condition. To operate with the utmost efficiency, the body needs an optimal working environment which is specific to your body. To achieve this, the body has numerous mechanisms, most of which require energy, that work to maintain a relatively constant internal environment. Homeostasis is most easily maintained in the young adult. Stress such as emotional turmoil, physical exercise, temperature change, pain, lack of oxygen or lack of fluid intake creates an imbalance in the body’s internal environment. In turn, this imbalance upsets or disturbs its homeostasis. One of the most important of all homeostatic states is the composition of body fluids. This must be maintained within precise limits at all times. E.g., the kidney cleans the blood of toxins and substances in excess. If a person is inflicted with kidney failure, he/she must undergo dialysis to cleanse the blood and follow a careful diet intended to reduce the production of toxins within the body. Until a compatible kidney is available for transplant, this person is dependent on dialysis in order to survive. Failure to accept dialysis results in a very painful death within a few days. Survival of the human body depends on the maintenance of its internal chemical and physical conditions.  Examples of chemical conditions are those such as: o salt & sugar content of body fluids o acid level o oxygen o carbon dioxide concentrations o purity of blood The toxic condition of the body would be a chemical condition.  Some physical conditions are: o fluid volume o body temperature o fluid pressures © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  52 All cells, tissues, organs, and systems play a role in the maintenance of this steady state. Both internal and external factors affecting the body, can directly influence its homeostasis. One of the most important of all homeostatic states is the composition of body fluids and their quality. This must be maintained within precise limits, at all times. o e.g., the kidney cleans the blood of toxins and substances in excess. o If a person is inflicted with kidney failure, he/she must undergo dialysis three times a week (each session lasting 8 hours) to cleanse the blood and follow a careful diet intended to reduce the production of toxins within the body. o Think of an aquarium, the water must be continually cleaned for the fish to survive – the body’s cells are just like the fish in the aquarium. o Until a compatible kidney is available for transplant, this person is dependent on dialysis, in order to survive. Failure to accept dialysis, results in a very painful death within a few days. See Figure 1-10 Diagram of the body’s internal environment. Stress creates an imbalance in the body's internal environment. In turn, this imbalance upsets or disturbs its homeostasis. Examples of the cause of stress are: o emotional turmoil o physical exercise o temperature change (increase or decrease) o pain, lack of oxygen o lack of water intake The model used in the text is Figure 1-11 ‘Negative Feedback Loops’ is particularly good to use, to explain the concept of homeostasis. To maintain the internal balance of chemical and physical conditions in the body’s internal environment, the body possesses self-regulating, complicated and integrated control systems involving the nervous and endocrine systems. Each mechanism is called a ‘negative feedback loop’, because it monitors any change from the normal condition. The receptor/sensor sends information to a control centre/integrator in the Central Nervous System or to a gland in the endocrine system. A decision is made and then an effector (muscle or gland) is activated to reduce the abnormal condition back toward the normal value, therefore, the term negative feedback. This results in the maintenance of homeostasis. Most feedback loops in the body are negative. The body wants to maintain homeostasis therefore the body uses negative feedback loops to reverse the changes that are occurring inside the body. Homeostasis is so important that most diseases are regarded as the result of its disturbance. A condition called homeostasis imbalance. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  53 These homeostatic mechanisms work well in young adults. However, these same mechanisms do not function well in the very young, the very old and the medically compromised. In the young the problem is developmental, because it takes time for many body systems to become fully developed after birth. In the elderly, the problem is due to the gradual shutdown of body functions. In the bodies of individuals with medical conditions, especially the chronically 1. It starts with a ‘stimulus’ or ‘disturbance’ which produces change in the variable. 2. The imbalance has been created and the ‘sensor’ detects the change. 3. Using the ‘afferent pathway’ information is sent along to the ‘integrator’ by the receptor. 4. The ‘integrator’ determines the level (set point) at which a variable is to be maintained and determines the necessary response. 5. Using the ‘efferent pathway’ the ‘integrator’ sends the instruction to the ‘effector’. 6. The response of the ‘effector’ feeds back to reduce the effect of the stimulus and returns the initial variable to the homeostatic level (or into balance). Let’s apply this concept to the body: Each mechanism is called a "feedback loop" because it monitors any change from the normal condition. The monitor (sensor) sends information to an integrator in the central nervous system or to a gland in the endocrine system. A decision is made and then an effector (muscle or gland) is activated to reduce the abnormal condition back toward the normal value (therefore the term negative feedback). This results in the maintenance of homeostasis. How do we know if we are in balance? We know the normal body temperature is around 98.6 F, so 98.6F becomes the set point for body temperature. If our body cools too much, chemical reactions will occur more slowly or not at all. If our temperature gets too hot, chemical reactions speed up and some chemicals may be destroyed. Homeostatic balance is highly important since most disease can be regarded as being the result of a disturbance or homeostatic imbalance. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  54 Key Points: The correct order of elements in a control system is... Disturbance, sensor, afferent pathway, integrator, efferent pathway, effector, response/controlled condition. The sensor detects the change. Your thermostat is located in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.  This area of the brain represents the integrator. There are two types of feedback loops 1. Negative Feedback loop  Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms  Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity  Works like a household thermostat o This is the most common feedback loop with their goal, to prevent sudden change in the body. o The net effect is that the output of the system, shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity o An example is the regulation of body temperature. o Each negative feedback loop consists of a sensor/receptor (such as nerve endings), an integrator/control centre (brain, endocrine glands) and an effector to reduce the effect of the stimulus. Muscles are an example of an effector. Here are examples of biological negative feedback:  Human body temperature - The hypothalamus of a human responds to temperature fluctuations and responds accordingly. If the temperature drops, the body shivers to bring up the temperature and if it is too warm, the body will sweat to cool down due to evaporation.  Human blood pressure - When blood pressure increases, signals are sent to the brain from the blood vessels. Signals are sent to the heart from the brain and heart rate slows down, thus helping blood pressure to return to normal.  When a human is hungry, metabolism slows down to conserve energy and allow the human to continue living with less food.  Regulation of blood sugar in humans - When blood sugar rises, insulin sends a signal to the liver, muscles and other cells, to store the excess glucose. Some is stored as body fat and other is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.  Production of human red blood cells (erythropoiesis) - A decrease in oxygen is detected by the kidneys and they secrete erythropoietin. This hormone stimulates the production of red blood cells. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  55 Negative Feedback Loop © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  56 2. Positive Feedback loop  Operate is such a way that the initial stimulus is enhanced and increases… o Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther o In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby o This type of feedback loop enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus, so that the activity accelerates o Examples  uterine contractions  blood clots Positive Feedback Loop Homeostasis tends to deteriorate with age: o Homeostatic mechanisms work well in young adults; however, these same mechanisms do not function well in the very young, the very old or the medically compromised. o In the young, the problem is developmental because it takes time for many body systems to become fully developed after birth. o In the elderly, the problem is due to the gradual shutdown of body functions. o In the bodies of individuals with medical conditions (especially the chronically ill), the maintenance of homeostasis is difficult due to the stress of illness. o e.g., as kidney tissue is progressively destroyed, the remaining healthy tissue will continue to struggle to maintain the entire filtering or purification capability of two healthy kidneys. This can go on for months or years, before a blood test may show signs of kidney inefficiency. o At this point, the individual may have 75% of the kidney tissue destroyed and is on the brink of kidney failure. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  57 o In order to survive, the afflicted person must depend on a dialysis machine to cleanse the blood. This is only one example of how hard the body's homeostatic mechanisms work, to maintain the stability of the internal environmental conditions. “A key determinant in body balance is the amount of water in our bodies.” The human body is composed mostly of water. It is the main component of your cells and of your blood. Water balance, or homeostasis, is absolutely critical in the human body. If you have too little water, nutrients cannot be adequately transported to your cells and wastes can accumulate to toxic levels. Your cells will then work less efficiently and may actually die. If you have too much water, there is a dilution of nutrients and this may well cause swelling of the cells. When brain cells swell, death can occur from water intoxication. Optional Activity 1: Reinforcement Exercise for Section 4: Answers are located in Appendix 1 of this workbook. Using a pencil, try answering the following questions in order to review the material presented in this lesson. (Answers to these questions are located in Appendix 1 of this workbook) Questions: 1. Stability of the body's internal environment is called ______________________. 2. Balance of the body's internal environment applies to stability of both its _______________and ____________________ conditions. 3. The most important homeostatic condition to be maintained within the human body is the composition of body ____________. 4. Homeostasis of body conditions can be disturbed by changes originating from both ____________ and ____________ factors affecting the body. 5. Control mechanisms involved in homeostasis are referred to as _______________ loops. 6. In which age group is Homeostasis most easily maintained? ________________________ Circle the most correct choice 7. The maintenance of homeostasis is essential to the body's________ a. heredity b. reproduction c. survival d. structure © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  58 8. Which of the following is an example of a physical condition in the body? a. salt content b. temperature c. concentration of oxygen in blood d. purity of blood 9. The organ that is essential to maintain the purity of blood and in turn body fluids as a whole is the______________. a. liver b. brain c. colon d. kidney 10. The body has many homeostatic mechanisms that ____________ internal body conditions. a. monitor b. self-regulate c. adjust d. all of the above 11. A negative feedback loop consists of... a. sensor/receptor, integrator/control centre, effector b. sensor/receptor, monitor, effector c. monitor, integrator/control centre, effector d. effector 1, effector 2, monitor Match each term in column B with its appropriate term or phrase in column A. Column A Column B 12. _____ toxic content of body fluids a. homeostasis 13. _____ fish in aquarium b. chemical condition 14. _____ brain/endocrine glands c. stress 15. _____ body stability within narrow range d. cells 16. _____ effector e. negative 17. _____ disturbs homeostasis f. sensor 18. _____ nerve endings g. integrator 19. _____ progressive reduction in homeostasis h. elderly 20. _____ describes most feedback loops in body i. muscles © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc  59 Anatomy and Physiology 1 PART TWO Introduction: Now that you have the knowledge to follow an anatomical map and understand what the author of any scientific textural material on the human body is referencing, you are ready to commence your journey into the body itself. In Part 2 of this course, you will be starting at the microscopic level; the first topic is the cell which includes the subtopics: chemistry, parts of the cell and cell chemistry. Section 5: The Cell Textbook Chapters 2 and 3 Required Activity: Textbook Chapters 2 and 3, “Chemistry of Life” and “Cells”. It is recommended to scan read the Outline Summaries at the end of the chapters first and then the notes, prior to reading the two chapters. This will help you to better frame the text and knowledge requirements within the chapters. Chemistry: (This is presented at the is time as conceptual information since this is discussed in Physiology 5) Why study the chemistry of your body? Your entire body is made up of chemicals, thousands of them, continuously interacting with one another, at an incredible pace. Chemical reactions underlie all physiological processes – movement, digestion, the pumping of the heart and even the brain’s functionality. First of all, let’s look at the concepts of ‘Matter and Energy’.  Matter—anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)  Energy—the ability to do work  Chemical  Electrical  Mechanical  Radiant Chemistry studies the nature of matter and how its building blocks are put together and...how they interact. Energy has no mass and does not take up space, but all living things are built of matter and in order to grow or function, there is a need for the continuous supply of energy. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc.  60 As a result, energy can be measured only by its effects on matter. There is either ‘kinetic energy’ (when energy is working producing activity) and ‘potential energy’ (when it is inactive and being stored). Importantly, whenever energy is transformed the amount of useful energy decreases and some energy will be lost to heat. Energy is never ‘lost’, it is just found in different forms, some of which we can capture and others of which, we cannot. With few exceptions, energy is easily converted from one form to another. For example, chemical energy (from gasoline) that powers the motor of a Skidoo or boat is converted into the mechanical energy of driving the vehicle’s rubber tracks forward or the propeller –both of which then push the vehicle forward. In the body, the chemical energy of foods is trapped in the bonds of a high-energy chemical called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and...ATP’s ultimate energy may be transformed into the electrical energy of nerve impulses or mechanical energy of shortening the muscles. The basic premise is that in order to survive, cells of the human body must function in a cooperative manner and cells are ‘matter’. Before looking at their composition, think about the practical world about you. In cells, body fluids and in fact in the world around us, all substances exist in three forms: o Solid o Liquid/Fluids o Gas In turn, all solids, liquids/fluids, and gases are composed of chemicals. Some examples of these substances are: o Solids - butter, rock, wood, feces o Liquid/Fluids - water, milk, blood, urine o Gases - air, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor Some of these substances are visible while others are invisible. Regardless of this fact, they all have levels of organization that are invisible to the naked eye and even a microscope; as mentioned,” above that level” is referred to as the “chemical level”. All matter is composed of ‘elements’ e.g. oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen which make up 96% of the body weight. With the concept of matter and energy in mind, let’s now look at the composition of the cell. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc.  61 © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc.  62 Parts of the Cell – The cell theory is the theory that: 1. All organisms are composed of cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of organization of organisms. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. If there is a reduction in cells due to their starvation of oxygen, then there will obviously be a restricted ability or capacity to grow the number of cells and strengthen/construct body tissue. It has a multiplier effect.  The cell is the structural and functional unit of the human body.  Cells carry out the chemical activities needed to sustain life and they divide to form or repair tissues.  The many types of tissues formed by cells allow for the division of labour among the body systems. In addition, we will continue to use the analogy of the "building" in the discussion of the cell.. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc.  63 Discussion: There are three main parts to the cell: By using the "building" model, these three parts would be equivalent to the following parts of a building: Building Cell o wall = plasma (cell) membrane o air = cytoplasm o computerized control room = nucleus 1.The plasma membrane surrounds the entire contents (circumference) of the cell. The plasma membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell. 2.The cytoplasm is the fluid inside the cell where all chemical processes of life go on. 3.The nucleus and other cellular organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm. The nucleus controls the internal environment of the cell; what goes on inside the cell. The plasma (cell) membrane (figure 3-2) surrounds the entire contents of the cell just as walls form the boundaries of a building. Its main components are lipids and it is stabilized by Cholesterol.  The nucleus and other cellular organelles are suspended in the fluid cytoplasm just as various rooms are suspended in the sea of air that fills the building.  Just as the computerized control room controls all of the building's climatic conditions, the nucleus controls the internal environment of the cell. Activity: Please examine Figure 3-1 in text. Structure of the cell (also in class note above)  The plasma membrane is composed mostly of fat molecules.  There are two layers of the fat called phospholipids, each with the water-soluble phosphate head facing outward and inward in the water environments both outside and inside the cell.  The fatty acid tails of the phospholipid molecules are pointed toward each other in the middle of the membrane, because they are fat-soluble (i.e., water-insoluble).  The result is a "fat sandwich" phosphate layers replacing the bread slices and the lipid/fat spread in between.  This type of fat (i.e., fatty acids) gives the membrane flexibility, perhaps its most important aspect. © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc.  64  It is essential for the cell membrane to be flexible so that the big proteins present throughout the membrane, can change shape in order to open and close the channels that they form.  This ability allows the cell membrane to determine which water-soluble molecules and ions enter and leave the cell.  This property of the cell or plasma membrane is called selectively permeable. To increase the stability of the membrane, rigid cholesterol molecules are scattered through the phospholipid layers, just as certain walls in a building are load bearing.  Note that protein molecules are intermittently located in the membrane; they perform various functions:  some are gateways - for water-soluble molecules  some are receptors - for certain hormones  some are ID molecules (identification) - in tissue typing (normally a carbohydrate is attached) Notes:________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Cytoplasm completely fills the inside of the cell between the plasma and nuclear membranes, with intracellular organelles suspended in it. These organelles are so tiny that they cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope, and a specialized instrument called an electron microscope is required to provide the higher magnification needed to see these small structures (refer again to Figure 3-1). The following are the three major elements found in the cytoplasm: Recall this is the cellular material between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. Cytosol, Inclusions, and Organelles Note: The cytoskeleton is a protein structure that extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane. It helps cells maintain their shape. a) Cytosol  Viscous, semitransparent fluid of the cytoplasm in which other elements are suspended.  Dissolved in the cytosol (which is largely water) are soluble proteins, salts, sugars and a variety of other solutes. This is also called intracellular fluid (ICF). © 2022 International Academy of Applied Health Inc.  65 b) Inclusions  Non-functioning chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the specific type of cell. o EXAMPLES - Stored nutrients such as glycogen, lipid droplets, pigments. c) Organelles  The metabolic machinery of the cell.  Each type of organelle performs its own job to maintain the life of the cell.  Most organelles have a membrane similar in composition to that of (PM), which enables them to maintain an internal environment quite different from the surrounding cytosol. There are 7 organelles of priority: i) Ribosomes  Site of protein production/synthesis  Has both small and large units  Can attach to Endoplasmic reticulum ii) Endoplasmic Reticulum