Anatomy Bullet Points PDF

❑ ANAPHY BULLET POINTS Chapter 1: Orientation of Human Body Anatomy -- structure and shape of the body and its parts \- sizes and relationships of parts Types of Study Physiology Integumentary system -- Waterproofs the body -- Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury -- Produc...

❑ ANAPHY BULLET POINTS Chapter 1: Orientation of Human Body Anatomy -- structure and shape of the body and its parts \- sizes and relationships of parts Types of Study Physiology Integumentary system -- Waterproofs the body -- Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury -- Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight -- Excretes salts in perspiration -- Helps regulate body temperature -- Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Skeletal system Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals. Muscular system Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat. Nervous system Brain , Sensory receptor ,Spinal cord Nerves Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Endocrine system Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. Cardiovascular system -- Includes heart and blood vessels -- Blood transports: carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood. Lymphatic system Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity. Respiratory system Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. Digestive system Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Urinary system Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood. Reproductive system production of offspring. Characteristics of Life The Language of Anatomy Anatomical position -- Standard body position ; Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body Directional terms Regional Terms Body Planes and Sections Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as PLANES A sagittal section = left and right parts A median, or midsagittal,= equal left and right parts A frontal, or coronal, = anterior and posterior parts A transverse / cross / axial ,= superior and inferior parts Body Cavities \- actual or potential spaces Two internal body cavities Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions Other body cavities include: Serous Membranes -- Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities -- Visceral Serous Membranes -- Parietal Serous Membranes -- Serous Fluids Thoracic cavity Pericardial Cavity Right and Left Pleural Cavity ▪ contains pleural fluid Parietal pleura Abdominopelvic Cavity/PERITONEAL CAVITY Homeostasis Main controlling systems Negative feedback -- most homeostatic control mechanisms -- Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity -- made smaller or is resisted ❑Receptor ❑control center ❑effector Positive feedback -- e set point becoming even greater -- required to re-achieve homeostasis -- Ex during blood loss, a chemical responsible for blood clot formation, called thrombin, stimulates production of even more thrombin -- Ex. birth of a baby Most cells are composed of four elements: 1\. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Oxygen 4. Nitrogen Cells are about 60% water cell has three main regions or parts: NUCLEUS; Three regions: 1\. Nuclear envelope (membrane) 2\. Nucleolus 3\. Chromatin=DNA wound around histones (proteins) PLASMA MEMBRANE Hydrophilic ("water loving") Hydrophobic ("water fearing") Responsible for specialized membrane functions: Enzymes Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers Transport as channels or carriers Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to proteins that abut the extracellular space Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the cell's surface Main types of cell junctions; CYTOPLASM Three major component of the cytoplasm Mitochondria Ribosomes § Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Two types: § Rough endoplasmic reticulum § Smooth endoplasmic reticulum § Golgi apparatus § Lysosomes § Peroxisomes § Cytoskeleton Three different types of elements form the cytoskeleton: 1\. Microfilaments 2\. Intermediate filaments 3\. Microtubules § Centrioles Surface extensions found in some cells CELL DIVERSITY Cells that connect body parts - - - Cells that move organs and body parts Cell that stores nutrients Cell that fights disease Cell that gathers information and controls body functions Cells of reproduction Oocyte (female) Sperm (male) CELL PHYSIOLOGY ; § Metabolize § Digest food § Dispose off wastes § Reproduce § Grow § Move § Respond to a stimulus MEMBRANE TRANSPORT Intracellular fluid § Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts dissolved in water Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid) § Contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, waste products Two basic methods of transport Passive processes: A. Diffusion B. Filtration Active processes: A. Active transport B. Vesicular Transport § Solution---homogeneous mixture of two or more components § Solvent---dissolving medium present in the larger quantity; the body's main solvent is water § Solute---components in smaller quantities within a solution A. Diffusion Molecule movement is from high concentration to low concentration, down a concentration gradient Types of diffusion 1\. Simple diffusion An unassisted process 2\. Osmosis simple diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane § Isotonic solutions have the same solute and water concentrations as cells and cause no visible changes in the cell § Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than the cells do; the cells will begin to shrink § Hypotonic solutions contain fewer solutes (more water) than the cells do; cells will plump 3\. Facilitated diffusion § Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances B. Filtration § A pressure gradient must exist that pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from a high-pressure area to a lower-pressure area TYPES OF ACTIVE PROCESSES A. Active transport B. Vesicular transport A. Active transport § Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are transported by protein carriers known as solute pumps ex: sodium-potassium pump B. Vesicular transport § substances are moved across the membrane "in bulk" without actually crossing the plasma membrane TYPES OF VESICULAR TRANSPORT 1\. Exocytosis 2\. Endocytosis 1\. Exocytosis docking process Docking proteins on the vesicles recognize plasma membrane proteins and bind with them 2\. Endocytosis § Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed) in a membranous vesicle Types of ENDOCYTOSIS 2.a. Phagocytosis---"cell eating" Cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria or dead body cells 2.b. Pinocytosis---"cell drinking" § Cell "gulps" droplets of extracellular fluid containing dissolved proteins or fats 2.c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis §Highly selective process of taking in substances such as enzymes, some hormones, cholesterol, and iron CELL LIFE CYCLE Cell life cycle has TWO STAGES 1\. Interphase (metabolic phase) § Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes 2\. Cell division= reproduces itself 3 SUBPHASES G1 Phase (first gap phase) § cell carries out routine metabolic activities S Phase (synthesis phase) § DNA is replicated (new DNA is synthesized) G2 Phase (second gap phase) § the cell prepares for division CELL DIVISION § Events of cell division § Mitosis---division of the nucleus § Cytokinesis---division of the cytoplasm Events of cell division Mitosis---division of the nucleus Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei 1\. Prophase 2\. Metaphase 3\. Anaphase 4\. Telophase Cytokinesis---division of the cytoplasm Prophase Chromatin coils into chromosomes Identical strands -chromatids are held together by a centromere Centrioles direct the assembly a mitotic spindle Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down Metaphase Anaphase Telophase BODY TISSUES Groups of cells with similar structure and function Four primary types: 1\. Epithelial tissue (epithelium) 2\. Connective tissue 3\. Muscle tissue 4\. Nervous tissue Hallmarks of epithelial tissues: § Cover and line body surfaces § Composed of cells with very little extracellular matrix between them § Often form sheets with one free surface, the apical surface, and an anchored surface, the basement membrane § Avascular (no blood supply) § Regenerate easily if well nourished Locations: § Body coverings - external (skin), inside the body such as the internal organs § Body linings - lining of the body cavities § Glandular tissue -- e.g. apocrine glands, sweat glands Functions: Classification of epithelia NUMBER OF CELL LAYERS - - - SHAPE OF CELLS - - - \(A) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF CELL LAYERS Simple epithelia § Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration Simple squamous epithelium § Locations § Lines air sacs of the lungs § Forms walls of capillaries § Forms serous membranes (serosae) that line and cover organs of the body cavities § Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in membranes SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM § Locations § Common in glands and their ducts § Forms walls of kidney tubules § Covers the surface of ovaries § Choroid plexuses of the brain, § Lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs, § Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells § Simple columnar epithelium § Locations § Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to anus § Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body cavities opening to the exterior § Bronchioles of the lungs, § Auditory tubes § Uterus, uterine tubes § ventricles of the brain § Functions in § Pseudostratified columnar epithelium § Location: § Functions : § Stratified epithelia § Consist of two or more cell layers § Function primarily in protection § Stratified squamous epithelium § Locations ---lining of the: § Keratinized---primarily In the skin § Nonkeratinized---mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra, cornea § Functions as EPITHELIAL TISSUE ;Glands Glandular epithelia § Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous (water-based) fluid § Two major gland types develop from epithelial sheets § Endocrine glands § Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into blood vessels § Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary § Exocrine glands § Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface § Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas CONNECTIVE TISSUE Cells of the Extracellular Matrix \- blasts : create the matrix; e.g. osteoblasts form bone \- cytes : maintain the matrix; osteocytes maintain the bone \- clasts : break it down for c remodeling; osteoclasts break it down Mast cells \- inflammation; contain chemicals, such as heparin, histamine, and proteolytic enzymes, that are released in response to injury - - \- large, phagocytic cells found in some connective tissue typesinfections - \- fragments of hemopoietic cells containing enzymes and special proteins that function in the clotting process to reduce bleeding from a wound - \- adult stem cell that persist in connective tissue; Extracellular Matrix § Nonliving material that surrounds living cells 3 main elements of the extracellular matrix 1\. PROTEIN FIBERS Collagen (white) fibers most abundant protein in the body;very strong and flexible, but are not very elastic Type I - most abundant in the body; tendons,ligaments, skin, and bone Type II - cartilage, Type III - reticular fibers Elastic (yellow) fibers provide the elasticity of skin, lungs, and arteries. Reticular fibers (a type of collagen) short, thin fibers that branch to form a network that fill spaces between tissues and organs 2\. GROUND SUBSTANCE ---nonfibrous molecules; Two major components good lubricant for joint cavities; major component of the vitreous humor of the eye; major role in the elasticity of the skin common glycosaminoglycan is chondroitin 3\. FLUIDS most rigid to softest, or most fluid:  § Bone  § Cartilage  § Dense connective tissue  § Loose connective tissue  § Blood Bone (osseous tissue) § Hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and mineralized matrix Composed of: § Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae (cavities) § Hard matrix of calcium salts (hydroxyapatite) § Functions to protect and support the body TYPES: 1\. Spongy Bone \- has spaces between trabeculae, or plates, of bone 2\. Compact Bone \- more solid, with almost no space between many thin layers, or lamellae Cartilage § Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type, located in spaces called lacunae § The surface of nearly all cartilage is surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue called the perichondrium TYPES 1\. Hyaline cartilage 2\. Fibrocartilage 3\. Elastic cartilage Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue) § Main matrix element is protein (collagen fiber) § 2 major groups Dense regular connective tissue \- has protein fibers in the extracellular matrix that are oriented predominantly in one direction. 2\. Dense regular elastic connective tissue \- consists of parallel bundles of collagen fibers and abundant elastic fibers; § Locations § Tendons ---attach skeletal muscle to bone § Ligaments ---attach bone to bone at joints and are more elastic than tendons § Dermis ---lower layers of the skin Loose connective tissue § Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than other connective tissues (except blood) Types § Areolar § Adipose § Reticular Areolar connective tissue § Soft, pliable tissue like "cobwebs" § Functions as a universal packing tissue and "glue" to hold organs in place § Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema) Adipose connective tissue § An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells dominate § Functions § Insulates the body § Serves as a site of fuel storage § Locations § Fat "depots" include hips, breasts, and belly § Reticular connective tissue § Delicate network of interwoven fibers with reticular cells (like fibroblasts) § Locations § Lymph nodes § Spleen § Bone marrow 1\. Blood (vascular tissue) § Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as blood plasma § Nutrients § Wastes § Respiratory gases 2\. Bone marrow § Produces new blood cells (red marrow) § Stores lipids (yellow marrow) MUSCLE TISSUE Functions is to contract, or shorten to pump blood through the heart and blood vessels, to decrease the size of hollow organs, such as the stomach and urinary bladder Three types of muscle tissue Skeletal muscle tissue § Striations (stripes) § Multinucleate (more than one nucleus) § Long, cylindrical shape Cardiac muscle tissue § Striations § One nucleus per cell § Short, branching cells § Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to connect cells together Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue § No visible striations § One nucleus per cell § Spindle-shaped cells NERVOUS TISSUE § Irritability § Conductivity § Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, and support neurons Parts of a Neuron § Cell body § Dendrites § Axon NERVOUS TISSUE:Internal communication and control MUSCLE TISSUE: Contracts to cause movement EPITHELIAL TISSUE: Forms boundaries between differentenvironments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters Hallmarks: one free (apical) surface, avascular CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together Hallmarks: extracellular matrix, varying vascularity STAGES OF INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on: § Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than ragged tears of the tissue Events of tissue repair - - - § Tissues that regenerate easily § Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes) § Fibrous connective tissues and bone § Tissues that regenerate poorly § Skeletal muscle § Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue § Cardiac muscle § Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  ¬ Skin (cutaneous membrane)  ¬ Skin appendages  ¬ Sweat glands  ¬ Oil glands  ¬ Hair  Nails FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Insulates and cushion deeper body organs Protects the entire body from: - - - - - - Aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by the nervous system Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid Synthesizes vitamin D STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN Two major tissue layers compose the skin  Dermis  Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) c\) ¬ Composed mostly of adipose tissue d\) ¬ Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues Epidermis---outer layer  ¬ Stratified squamous epithelium  ¬ Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a fibrous protein called keratin  ¬ Avascular  ¬ Composed of five layers (strata) from deepest to most superficial 1\. Stratum basale 2\. Stratum spinosum 3\. Stratum granulosum 4\. Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only) 5\. Stratum corneum 1\. Stratum Basale (stratum germinativum)  ¬ Deepest layer of epidermis  ¬ Single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells  ¬Lies next to dermis 2\. Stratum Spinosum  ¬ 8--10 layers of many-sided cells  ¬ Produces keratin fibers; lamellar bodies form inside keratinocytes 3\. Stratum Granulosum  § 2 to 5 layers of flattened, diamond-shaped cells § Produces protein granules of keratohyalin (accumulate in the cytoplasm of the cell) 4\. Stratum Lucidum  § 3-5 layers of dead cells  § Appears transparent  § Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata 5\. Stratum Corneum  ¬ Composed of 25 or more layers of dead, overlapping squamous cells joined by desmosomes  ¬ Provides structural strength due to keratin within cells Melanin  ¬ Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum  ¬ Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes SKIN COLOR Three pigments contribute to skin color 1\. Melanin 2\. Carotene 3\. Hemoglobin ¬ Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries - - - - ALBINISM § A recessive genetic trait that results from an inability to produce tyrosinase SKIN CANCER § Mutation can be passed to one of the two daughter cells when a cell divides by mitosis. § If mutations affecting oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in epidermal cells accumulate, uncontrolled cell division and skin cancer can result OTHER CELLS IN THE EPIDERMIS  Epidermal dendritic cells  Merkel cells DERMIS 2 LAYERS OF THE DERMIS ¬Papillary layer (upper dermal region) Reticular layer (deepest skin layer) TWO LAYERS OF THE DERMIS 1\. Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contain projections called dermal papillae  ¬ Many projections contain capillary loops and curving ridges that shape the underlying epidermis into fingerprints and footprints  ¬ On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase friction and gripping ability 2\. Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)  ¬ Blood vessels  Sweat and oil glands  Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles) APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN SEBACEOUS GLANDS  ¬Produce sebum (oil)  ¬ Kills bacteria  Glands are activated at pub SWEAT GLANDS Sudoriferous glands Two types of sudoriferous glands Eccrine glands ¬Apocrine glands HAIR ¬ Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells HAIR ANATOMY Central medulla \|Cortex \| Hair follicle ¬ Arrector pili muscle Hair Growth NAILS  ¬ Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the epidermis PARTS OF A NAIL Free edge \| Body \|Nail folds \| Root of nail \| nail matrix SKIN INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES - - - - - - - - - BURNS  ¬ Protein denaturation and cell death First-degree burn (superficial burn) = red and swollen Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn) = red, painful, and blistered Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn) ¬ Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless ¬ Requires skin grafts, ¬ Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn) ¬ Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons) ¬ Appears dry and leathery ¬ Requires surgery and grafting ,May require amputation Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met): ¬ Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns ¬ Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree burns ¬ Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet, or genitals  Burns affect the airways Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have occurred SKIN CANCER Basal cell carcinoma  ¬ Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that develop a central ulcer Squamous cell carcinoma  ¬ Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules that gradually form shallow ulcers Malignant melanoma  ¬ Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels Detection uses ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma A = Asymmetry B = Border irregularity C = Color D = Diameter E = Evolution DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES Lanugo, \| Vernix caseosa, \| Milia, BODY MEMBRANES Classified according to tissue types ¬ Epithelial membranes  ¬ Connective tissue membranes ­Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial tissue) ­Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints ­Line bursae ­Line tendon sheaths SKELETAL SYSTEM Provides a solid framework Calcium and phosphorus ✔️ Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) \[COMPONENTS\] \* Bones (skeleton) -Joints - Cartilages - Ligaments ❖Two subdivisions of the skeleton CLASSIFICATION OF BONES \[BASED ON SHAPE\] Long bones Ex:✓ Femur ✓ Humerus Flat bones Ex: Most bones of the skull \| Ribs \| Sternum \|Scapula Short bones Ex: \"Carpals (wrist bones) \| \"Tarsals (ankle bones) Irregular bones Ex: Vertebrae \| Hip bones \| Facial bones LONG BONE ANATOMY Diaphysis (central shaft) bone\'s length \| compact bone Epiphysis (ends) spongy bone Articular cartilage thin hyaline cartilage \| Decreases friction Epiphyseal plate/ Growth plate Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone \* Located between epiphysis and diaphysis Epiphyseal line \* Remnant of the epiphyseal plate Previously a cartilage, transformed into bone Periosteum Outside covering of the diaphysis Endosteum \* Lines the inner surface of the shaft/ medullary cavity \"Made of connective tissue Medullary cavity ­ Cavity inside the shaft ­ Contains marrow CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON TYPE OF TISSUE 1\. Compact bone ­ Dense, smooth, and homogeneous 2\. Cancellous/Spongy bone ­ Small needlelike pieces of bone - - - MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE Osteon (Haversian system) central canal and matrix rings \*Central (Haversian) canal Opening in the center of an osteon (Haversian system) Carries blood vessels, nerves and loose connective tissue. Lacunae ­ Cavities/ spaces in bone matrix that house osteocytes ­Lamellae ­ Concentric circles of lacunae situated around the central (Haversian) canal MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SPONGY BONE BONE CELLS Osteoblasts ­ Located in periosteum and endosteum ­ " bone forming cells" Osteocytes ­ Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix Osteoclasts §large multinucleate bone cell which reabsorbs the broken down Ca "back" into the bloodstream Composed of 35% organic and 65% inorganic materials a\. ORGANIC ­ Collagen and proteoglycan b\. INORGANIC ­ Ca phosphate crystal called HYDROXYAPATITE. \- makes up the major portion of bone BONE MATRIX Bone markings Categories of bone markings ­ Projections or processes---grow out from the bone surface ­ Depressions or cavities---indentations 1-AXIAL SKELETON Central core \| 80 bones Divided into three parts;1. Skull 2. Vertebral column 3\. Bony thorax -SKULL It includes 8 cranial bones, 14 facial bones, 6 auditory ossicles, and the hyoid bone two sets of bones form the skull 1 Frontal bone 2 Occipital bone 3 Ethmoid bone 4 Sphenoid bone 5, 6 Parietal bones (pair) 7, 8 Temporal bones (pair) 14 facial bones 1, 2 Maxillae (pair) 3, 4 Palatine bones (pair) 5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) 7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair) 9, 10 Nasal bones (pair) 11 Vomer bone 12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair) 14 Mandible ­Serves as a movable base for the tongue ­Aids in swallowing and speech ­Functions ;Lighten the skull, Amplify sounds made as we speak -VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE) ­ 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck ­ 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region ­ 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back ­ Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae) ­ Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3--5 vertebrae) ­Primary curvatures ­ Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions ­ Present from birth ­ Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns Secondary curvatures ­ Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions ­ Develop after birth ­ Form an S-shaped curvature in adults Parts of a typical vertebra ­ Body (centrum) ­ Vertebral arch ­ Vertebral foramen ­ Transverse processes ­ Spinous process ­ Superior and inferior articular processes ATLAS (C1) \- allows the head to move in a "yes" mo5on and to 5lt from side to side AXIS (C2) \- considerable amount of rotation occurs at the axis to produce a "no" motion of the head b.) CERVICAL VERTEBRAE \- Dislocations and fractures are more common in this area than in other regions of the column (because of small and delicate bodies) \(c) THORACIC VERTEBRAE \(d) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE \- Have large, thick bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous processes SACRAL VERTEBRAE Consists of three parts 1\. Sternum 2\. Ribs 1\. Sternum a\. **Manubrium** is the "sword handle"; where the 1st rib and the clavicle articulate b\. **Body or gladiolus (sword),** is the "blade" c\. **Xiphoid** process is the "sword tip" \- anterior base of the neck \- point at which the manubrium joins the body of the sternum can be felt as a prominence on the anterior thorax 2\. Ribs True ribs (pairs 1--7) False ribs (pairs 8--12)  Vertebro chondral ribs (pairs 8,9,10) -  Floating ribs (pairs 11--12) or vertebral ribs, 3\. Thoracic vertebrae APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126 bones ­ Pectoral girdle ­ Pelvic girdle ­Limbs (appendages) ­ Upper limbs ­ Lower limbs BONES OF THE SHOULDER/PECTORAL GIRDLE BONES OF THE PELVIS \- Composed of three pairs of fused bones The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE The female's pelvis BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS Humerus ­2. Distal end articulation The forearm has two bones Hand ­**Carpals**---wrist bones ­**Metacarpals**---palm bones ­ 5 per hand ­**Phalanges**---fingers and thumb BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS Femur ­The heaviest, strongest bone in the body Patella (kneecap) The lower leg has two bones Foot ­**Tarsals**---7 bones ­ Two largest tarsals are the: ­**Metatarsals**---5 bones form the sole of the foot ­**Phalanges**---14 bones form the toes Arches of the feet three strong arches; ­Two longitudinal ­One transverse CONNECTIVE TISSUE Extracellular matrix ­Collagen- tough, ropelike protein ­ Proteoglycans- polysaccharide attached to core protein , attract and retain large amount of water ­Water, minerals ­ Tendons and Ligaments ­Contains collagen and proteoglycans Bone ­Collagen, minerals (calcium phosphate called hydroxyapatite) JOINTS  Structural  Functional STRUCTURAL JOINT CLASSIFICATIONS A. Fibrous joints= Generally immovable 1\. Sutures ­ Immobile ­ In newborn, called fontanels (membranous soft spot) ­ Allows flexibility during child birth ­ Head growth after birth 2\. Syndesmoses ­ Allow more movement than sutures but still immobile ­ Held together by ligaments 3\. Gomphoses ­ Immobile ­ Found where the teeth meet the facial bones ­ Held together by ligaments ­Cartilaginous joints=Immovable or slightly movable ­Synovial joints=Freely movable B. Cartilaginous joints ­ Absorbs compressive shock 1\. Synchondrosis ­ Joined by hyaline cartilage 2\. Symphysis ­ Joined by fibrocartilage Synovial joints ­ Freely movable joints ­ Contains areolar connective tissue ­Four distinguishing features of synovial joints 1\. Articular cartilage 2\. Articular/ Joint capsule 3\. Joint cavity 4\. Reinforcing ligaments Bursae ---flattened fibrous sacs \| Tendon sheath Types of synovial joints based on shape ­Plane joint ­Hinge joint ­Pivot joint ­Condylar/Ellipsoid joint ­Saddle joint ­Ball-and-socket joint Plane joint/ Gliding Joint Consists of 2 opposed flat surfaces that glide over each other Hinge joint Ex. elbow and knee joints Pivot joint §Restrict movement to rotation around a single axis 2 planes (biaxial) -Condylar joint/ Ellipsoidal §Modified/Elongated ball and socket joint -Saddle joint Ball-and-socket joint (multiaxial) C. FUNCTIONAL JOINT CLASSIFICATIONS ­Synarthroses= Immovable joints ­Amphiarthroses= Slightly movable joints ­Diarthroses= Freely movable joints BONE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING Bone formation ­ Ossification is the process of bone formation by osteoblast ­ Synthesis of organic matrix containing collagen, proteoglycan, hydroxyapatite crystals Fetal Bone Formation 1\. Intramembranous ossification -- bone formation within connective tissue membranes - - - - -  Trabeculae are constantly remodeled 2\. Endochondral ossification \- bone formation inside the cartilage ­ Both results to spongy and compact bone ­ Bones at the base of the skull and most of the skeletal system develop through this process ­ Chondrocytes ­ Cartilage cells increase in number , hypertrophy, die ­ Cartilage matrix calcifies ­ Primary ossification center ­ Center part of diaphysis ­ Bone first begin to appear ­ Osteoclasts removes some calcified matrix ­ Osteoblasts invade spaces in the center of the bone to make trabeculae ­ Secondary Ossification Centers ­ Formation of medullary cavity ­ Previously calcified matrix replaced by marrow Appositional growth §Growth in length of bone occurs in epiphyseal plate §Chondrocytes increase in number , line up in column, hypertrophy and die §Cartilage matrix calcifies §Chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts Bone Remodeling Responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair, calcium ion regulation BONE FRACTURES - - Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization BONE REPAIR ­Hematoma ­ Fibrocartilage callus forms ­ Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the broken bone ­ Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus ­ Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical stresses, requires several months BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS Calcium ion regulation ­ Parathyroid hormone (PTH) ­ Released when calcium ion levels in blood are low ­ Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells) ­ Increases calcium resorption from urine in the kidney ­ Stimulates kidney to form active Vitamin D to increase calcium resorption from small intestine Calcitonin DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE SKELETON ­First "long bones" of a fetus are hyaline cartilage ­Usually ossify by 2 years of age Size of cranium in relationship to body ­ During puberty: -By the end of adolescence: Older adults 5-MUSCULAR SYSTEM ­ Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to "muscle" ­ Prefix sarco- refers to "flesh" CARDIAC MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLE Arrangement of gross muscle structures from smallest to largest The epimysium of skeletal muscle blends into a connective tissue attachment ­ Tendons ---cordlike structures ­­ Aponeuroses ---sheetlike structures ­ Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY SKELETAL MUSCLE - - SKELETAL MUSCLE (BANDING PATTERN OF MYOFIBRILS) I band = light band ­A band = dark band Sarcomere ---contractile unit of a muscle fiber Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) =­Stores and releases calcium STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION OF SINGLE SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS ­Irritability (also called responsiveness) ­Contractility ­Extensibility ­Elasticity THE NERVE STIMULUS AND ACTION POTENTIAL SKELETAL SYSTEM Motor unit \| Neuromuscular junction \| Neurotransmitter Synaptic cleft MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION THE SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE AS A WHOLE Graded responses can be produced in two ways MUSCLE RESPONSE TO INCREASINGLY RAPID STIMULATION ­Muscle twitch - - - Three pathways to regenerate ATP 1\. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate 2\. Aerobic pathway 3\. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEFICIT  ­ Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)  ­ Oxygen deficit and lactic acid accumulation  ­ Decrease in energy (ATP) supply After exercise, the oxygen deficit is repaid by rapid, deep breathing TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS Isotonic contractions ­ Ex: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS ­ Ex: pushing your palms together in front of you MUSCLE TONE ­State of continuous partial contractions EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLES Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS 1\. Origin: attachment to an immovable or less movable bone 2\. Insertion: attachment to a movable bone **When the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin** INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE BODY **Muscles can only pull as they contract-not push** - - - - LIP MUSCLES ELEVATE THE UPPER LIP 1\. Levator anguli oris n2. Levator labii superioris 3\. Levator labii superioris alaeque 4. Zygomaticus major 5\. Zygomaticus minor DEPRESSORS OF UPPER LIP 1\. Depressor anguli oris 2. Depressor labii inferioris PROTRUDES THE LOWER LIP 1\. Mentalis DEPRESSORS OF LOWER LIP 1\. Depressor anguli oris 2. Depressor labii inferioris 3\. Platysma NECK MUSCLES ANTERIOR NECK MUSCLES- lateral head movement POSTERIOR NECK MUSCLES-rotate and laterally flex the neck LATERAL NECK MUSCLES-rotate and laterally flex the neck POSTERIOR and LATERAL NECK MUSCLES-Rotation and lateral flexion of the neck MUSCLES MOVING THE HEAD AND NECK ANTERIOR NECK MUSCLES -flexes the neck Longus capitis \| Rectus capitis anterior LATERAL NECK MUSCLES-rotate and laterally flex the neck Rectus capitis lateralis \| Sternocleidomastoid Scalene muscles MUSCLES OF MASTICATION 1\. Temporalis 2\. Masseter 3\. Lateral Pterygoid 4\. Medial Pterygoid SWALLOWING AND THE LARYNX HYOID MUSCLES SOFT PALATE \| PALATOPHARYNGEUS SALPINGOPHARYNGEUS \| SOFT PALATE, PHARYNX (THROAT), AND LARYNX MUSCLES MOVING THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN 1\. SUPERFICIAL GROUP-connect the vertebrae to the ribs 2\. DEEP GROUP-attach between the spinous and transverse processes of individual vertebrae THORACIC MUSCLES 1\. Diaphragm 2. Intercostalis group 3. Scalenus group 4\. Serratus posterior group 5. Transversus thoracis ABDOMINAL WALL  Contraction of the abdominal muscles when the vertebral column is stationary decreases the volume of the abdominal cavity and the thoracic cavity and can aid in such functions as forced exhalation, vomiting, defecation, coughing, and childbirth UPPER LIMB MUSCLES SCAPULAR MOVEMENTS 1\. trapezius 2. levator scapulae 3. rhomboideus major 4\. rhomboideus minor 5. serratus anterior, 6. pectoralis minor MUSCLES ACTING ON THE ARM pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi FOREARM MOVEMENT ANTERIOR GROUP POSTERIOR GROUP ARM AND FOREARM MOVEMENTS EXTENSION OF THE ELBOW FLEXION OF THE ELBOW SUPINATORS (TURN PALM UP) PRONATION (PALM DOWN) EXTENSORS OF THE WRIST THUMB MOVEMENT abductor pollicis longus \[APL\] extensor pollicis longus \[EPL\] extensor pollicis brevis \[EPB\] INTRINSIC HAND MOVEMENT ABDUCTION OF FINGERS dorsal interossei abductor digiti minimi ADDUCTION OF FINGERS palmar interossei THENAR EMINENCE (RADIAL SIDE) flexor pollicis brevis abductor pollicis brevis opponens pollicis HYPOTHENAR EMINENCE (ULNAR SIDE) abductor digiti minimi \*flexor digiti minimi brevis \"opponens digiti minimi HIP AND THIGH MOVEMENT (ANTERIOR, POSTEROLATERAL, DEEP) ANTERIOR \- flex the hip POSTEROLATERAL DEEP LEG MOVEMENTS (MUSCLES OF THE THIGH) ANTERIOR COMPARTMENT \- flex the hip \- and/or extend the knee MEDIAL COMPARTMENT \- adduct the thigh POSTERIOR COMPARTMENT \- extend the hip and flex the knee ANKLE, FOOR AND TOE MOVEMENT EXTRINSIC FOOT MUSCLES 1\. Anterior compartment  Extensor digitorum longus.Extensor hallucis longus ,Tibialis anterior , Fibularis tertius 2\. Posterior compartment Superficial posterior - plantar flex the foot  Gastrocnemius  Plantaris \| Soleus Deep posterior - plantar flex and invert the foot and flex the toes  Flexor digitorum longus \| Flexor hallucis longus  Popliteus \| Tibialis posterior 3\. Lateral compartment  Fibularis brevis \| Fibularis longus INTRINSIC FOOT MUSCLES INTRINSIC FOOT MUSCLES ABDUCTION OF 2ND, 3RD 4TH TOES  § Dorsal interossei ABDUCTION OF THE 5TH TOE  § Abductor digiti minimi ADDUCTION OF 3RD, 4TH, 5TH TOES  § Plantar interossei OTHER FOOT MUSCLES EXTEND THE 4 LATERAL TOES  § Extensor digitorum brevis § Quadratus plantae  § Lumbricales (middle and distal phalanges)  § Extensor digitorum longus (anterior legmuscle) INTRINSIC FOOT MUSCLES FLEX THE TOES  § Flexor digiti minimi brevis (little toe)  § Flexor digitorum brevis (lateral 4 toes)  § Lumbricales (proximal phalanges)  § Quadratus plantae (lateral 4 toes) INTRINSIC FOOT MUSCLES GREAT TOE ABDUCT THE GREAT TOE  § Abductor hallucis ADDUCT THE GREAT TOE  § Adductor hallucis FLEX THE GREAT TOE  § Flexor hallucis brevis DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM - 6- The Digestive System and Metabolism Two main groups of organs - - Organs of the Alimentary Canal Mouth \| Pharynx \| Esophagus \| Stomach \| Small intestine Large intestine \| Anus Anatomy of the Mouth Mouth (oral cavity) \| Lips (labia) \| Cheeks \| Hard palate\| Soft palate \|Uvula \| Vestibule \| Oral cavity proper \| Tongue Tonsils Pharynx Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, and air Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the: - - Esophagus Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES) -prevents swallowed food from moving back up Stomach Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter Regions Cardial (cardia) \| Fundus \| Body - - - -stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of food -Rugae -Lesser omentum -Greater omentum Structure of the Stomach Mucosa - - - - **Chief cells** **--- protein digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)** **Parietal cells** **--- hydrochloric acid that activates enzymes** **Enteroendocrine cells** **---produce local hormones such as gastrin** Small Intestine The body's major digestive organ  Site of nutrient absorption into the blood Subdivisions; Duodenum \| Jejunum \| Ileum Jejunum appears red in color due to numerous blood supply "site of nutrient absorption" Ileum Peyer's patches are embedded in the ileal wall responsible for the absorption of vitamin B12 and the reabsorption of conjugated bile salts Structural modifications  help to direct and slow the flow of nutrients Peyer's patches Initiated immune responses against microorganisms that enter the mucosa Large Intestine Subdivisions ; Cecum \| Colon \| Rectum \| Anal canal Appendix Accumulation of lymphoid tissue Colon **Ascending**--- turn at the right colic (hepatic) flexure **Transverse**---turns at the left colic (splenic) flexure **Descending** - - **Anus**---opening of the large intestine - - Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the passage of feces Accessory Digestive Organs Teeth \| Salivary glands \| Pancreas \| Liver \| Gallbladder Teeth-two sets of teeth during a lifetime 1\. Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth A baby has 20 teeth by age 2 2\. Permanent teeth A full set is 32 teeth (with the wisdom teeth) Teeth are classified according to shape and function - - - - Two Major Regions of a Tooth 1\. Crown 2\. Root Salivary Glands 1\. Parotid glands 2\. Submandibular glands 3\. Sublingual glands Saliva Contains: - - - Pancreas Soft, triangular gland Secretes enzymes into the duodenum Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach Hormones produced by the pancreas  Insulin  Glucagon Liver MAJOR FUNCTIONS "produce bile" (600-1000ml/ day) - Bile is yellow-green, watery solution containing: - - - Gallbladder When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder When fatty food enters the duodenum, the gallbladder spurts out stored bile Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs four layers from innermost to outermost, 1\. Mucosa Innermost, moist membrane consisting of: simple columnar epithelium (except for esophagus---stratified squamous epithelium) Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria) Scanty smooth muscle layer lines the cavity (known as the lumen) 2\. Submucosa Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, mucosa associated lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels 3\. Muscularis externa ---smooth muscle Inner circular layer \| Outer longitudinal layer 4\. Serosa- fluid-producing cells Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses  Submucosal nerve plexus  Myenteric nerve plexus Essential Processes of the GI tract Ingestion \| Digestion\| Absorption\| Defecation Propulsion Peristalsis Segmentation Food breakdown: Digestion Each major food group uses different enzymes-HYDROLYSIS Carbohydrates are broken down to monosaccharides (simple sugars) Proteins are broken down to amino acids Fats are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol Absorption End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph Food propulsion---swallowing and peristalsis Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition) Two phases of swallowing Activities in the Stomach Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the hormone gastrin  Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce: o Protein-digesting enzymes o Mucus o Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic o Acidic pH  Activates pepsinogen to pepsin  **Pepsin**---an active protein-digesting enzyme  **Rennin**---works on digesting milk protein in infants; not produced in adults Food propulsion Activities of the Small Intestine  Break double sugars into simple sugars  Complete some protein digestion -Pancreatic enzymes play the major role in the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates -Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme and provides the proper environment for the pancreatic enzymes to operate -Local hormones that travel via the blood to influence the release of pancreatic juice (and bile)  **Secretin** ** Cholecystokinin (CCK)** Hormones (secretin and CCK) also target the liver and gallbladder to release bile Segmental movements  Mix chyme with digestive juices Activities of the Large Intestine Nutrient breakdown and absorption No digestive enzymes are produced Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients  Produce some vitamin K and some B vitamins  Release gases Water, vitamins, ions, and remaining water are absorbed Remaining materials are eliminated via feces Nutrient breakdown and absorption Feces contains: Undigested food residues \| Mucus \| Bacteria \| Water Nutrition and Metabolism  Foods are oxidized and transformed into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Major nutrients Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Water Minor nutrients Vitamins Minerals Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System and Metabolism - - - Newborn reflexes  Rooting reflex helps the infant find the nipple  Sucking reflex helps the infant hold on to the nipple and swallow Teething begins around age 6 months Middle-age digestive problems  Ulcers \| Gallbladder problems Later middle-age problems  Obesity \| Diabetes mellitus Activity of the digestive tract in old age  Fewer digestive juices \| Peristalsis slows  Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal cancers are more common 7-LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY Part I: The Lymphatic System 5\. lymph nodes  Axillary lymph node  Mammary plexus  Intestinal lymph node 6\. tonsils 7\. spleen 8\. thymus  Lymphatic vessel (transports lymph)  Bone FUNCTIONS 1.Fluid Balance 2. Fat Absorption 3. Defense Lymph Lymphatic vessels Lymph capillaries LYMPHATIC COLLECTING VESSELS Collect lymph from lymph capillaries Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart Right lymphatic duct drains the lymph from the right arm and the right side of the head and thorax Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest of body LYMPHATIC ORGANS 1\. Lymph Nodes 2\. Other Lymphoid Organs LYMPH NODES filter lymph before it is returned to the blood Harmful materials that are filtered Bacteria Viruses Cancer cells Cell debris Defense cells within lymph nodes Macrophages Lymphocytes FLOW OF LYMPH THROUGH NODES Lymph enters the convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels Lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the node Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic vessels Because there are fewer efferent than afferent vessels, flow is slowed OTHER LYMPHOID ORGANS TONSILS Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign pathogens SPLEEN PEYER\'S PATCH Macrophages capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine APPENDIX housing and cultivating beneficial gut flora Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory and digestive tracts THYMUS Produces thymosin (creates T-lymphocytes) Site of production and maturation of T lymphocytes Part II: Immunity Immune system -functional system TWO MECHANISMS THAT MAKE UP THE IMMUNE SYSTEM DEFEND US FROM FOREIGN MATERIALS Innate (nonspecific)defense system  Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders  Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials mechanical barriers to pathogens Adaptive (specific) defense system  Fights invaders that get past the innate system Inflammatory Response Four most common indicators (cardinal signs) of acute inflammation Redness \|Heat \| Pain \| Swelling (edema) Damaged cells release inflammatory chemicals  Histamine \| Quinine These chemicals cause:  Blood vessels to dilate  Capillaries to become leaky  Phagocytes and white blood cells to move into the area (called positive chemotaxis) Functions Of the Inflammatory Response Prevents spread of damaging agents Disposes of cell debris and pathogens through phagocytosis Sets the stage for repair Process of the Inflammatory Response 1.Neutrophils migrate to the area of inflammation by rolling along the vessel wall (following the scent of chemicals from inflammation) 2\. Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls by diapedesis to sites of inflammation 3\. Neutrophils gather in the precise site of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis) and consume any foreign material present **INTERFERONS**- small proteins secreted by virus-infected cells Fever Adaptive Body Defenses Adaptive body defenses are the body\'s specific defense system, or the third line of defense Immune response is the Immune system\'s response to a threat Antigens are targeted and destroyed by antibodies Three aspects of adaptive defense Antigen specific \- recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances Systemic -Immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site Memory \- recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens Two arms of the adaptive defense system Humoral immunity = antibody- mediated immunity Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity Antigens any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an Immune response FOREIGN ANTIGENS/COMMON NON-SELF ANTIGENS Foreign proteins provoke the strongest response SELF-ANTIGENS stimulate an adaptive immune system response Ex tumor destruction, rheumatoid arthritis, alopecia areata HAPTENS, OR INCOMPLETE ANTIGENS ⚫ are not antigenic by themselves Cells of the Adaptive Defense System 1\. Lymphocytes After recognition, the lymphocytes must increase in number to destroy the antigen arise from hemocytoblasts of bone marrow Immunocompetence \- The capability to respond to a specific antigen by binding to it with antigen-specific receptors that appear on the lymphocyte\'s surface 2\. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) -help the lymphocytes but do not respond to specific antigens Cells of the Adaptive Defense System (LYMPHOCYTES) LYMPHOCYTE DIFFERENTATION AND ACTIVATION 2\. ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (APCS) Engulf antigens and then present fragments of them on their own surfaces, where they can be recognized by T cells MAJOR TYPES OF CELLS BEHAVING AS APCS Dendritic cells Macrophages B lymphocytes Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response PRIMARY HUMORAL RESPONSE includes a series of cell divisions, cell differentiation, and antibody production B-cell receptors on the surface of B cells are actually antibodies (IgM and IgD) Produce antibodies to destroy antigens Takes 3-14 days to produce enough antibodies SECONDARY HUMORAL RESPONSE Antibodies Soluble proteins secreted by activated B cells (plasma cells) ANTIBODY STRUCTURE four polypeptide chains, two heavy and two light, linked by disulfide bonds to form a T- or Y-shaped molecule Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE) Antibody function Complement fixation: Neutralization: Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in which antigen-antibody complex settles out of solution Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to form a clone by binding with a recognized antigen Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to free antigens Different classes of effector T cells Helper T cells \| Cytotoxic T cells T cells must recognize non self and self through the process of antigen presentation Nonself -the antigen fragment presented by APC Self -coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the APC\'s surface at the same time Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response Cytotoxic (killer) T cells  Specialize in killing infected cells Helper T cells Regulatory T cells Organ Transplants and Rejection Autografts Isografts Allografts Xenografts 75% match is needed to attempt a graft Organ transplant is followed by immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection Disorders of Immunity Allergies Autoimmune diseases Immunodeficiencies Types Of Allergies IMMEDIATE (ACUTE) HYPERSENSITIVITY DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITY Autoimmune diseases Occurs when the body\'s self-tolerance breaks down The body produces auto-antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its own tissues Examples of autoimmune diseases Rheumatoid arthritis \| Myasthenia gravis Multiple sclerosis \| Graves\' disease Type I diabetes mellitus Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) Glomerulonephritis Immunodeficiencies ENDOCRINE SYSTEM HORMONES; TWO MECHANISM 1.DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION used by steroid and thyroid hormone 2.SECOND-MESSENGER SYSTEM used by protein and peptide hormone STIMULI THAT CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE -NEURAL\[nerve fibers\] ORGANS; - - - - - purely endocrine; - - - - HYPOTHALAMUS \- oxytocin =contractions of the uterus during sex, mens, breastfeeding and ADH=lows urine ,highs BP, PITUITARY GLAND \- master endocrine gland\[anterior=proteins&peptides and posterior=store hormones \] - - - PINEAL GLAND \[melatonin and fertility\] THYROID HORMONE CALCITONIN **PARATHYROID GLAND** THYMUS ADRENAL GLAND two regions; adrenal cortex- **mineralocorticoids(aldosterone)**=outermost,regulate sodium and potassium ions in blood,water and electrolyte balance , **glucocorticoids(cortisone & cortisol) =**middle layer , anti-inflammatory, maturation of tissues\[fetal lungs\] , help resist long term stressors **sex hormones**(adrenal androgens) =innermost layer ,androgens and estrogens adrenal medulla- =these hormones-increase HR,BP,blood glucose levels and dilating small passageways of lungs Pancreas \[pancreatic islets\] GONADS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; NOSE; olfactory receptors -moistens conchae-trap paranasal sinuses -produce mucus PHARYNX; naso- superio \| oro-middle \| laryngo-inferior - - - - LARYNX; voice box Epiglottis TRACHEA; windpipe c-shaped rings of hyaline ,has cilia MAIN BRONCHI -right; wider, shorter, straighter LUNGS respiratory zone; o Respiratory bronchioles o Alveolar ducts o Alveolar sacs o Alveoli (air sacs)--- ALVEOLI; simple squamous air-blood membrane alveolar macrophages surfactant\[lipid molecule\] PHYSIOLOGY; 1\. Pulmonary ventilation ---moving air into a nd out of the lungs (commonly called breathing) 2\. External respiration ---gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli 3\. Respiratory gas transport ---transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream 4\. Internal respiration ---gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries MECHANICS OF BREATJING pulmonary ventilation; inspiration and expiration \[intrapleural pressure ;\[-\],preventing lung collapse \] Respiratory Volumes and Capacities ▪ Tidal volume (TV) o 500 ml of air is moved in/out of lungs with each breath ▪ Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) taken in forcibly o 3,100 ml ▪ Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) o forcibly exhaled o 1,200 ml ▪ Residual volume o Air remaining in lung after expiration Cannot be voluntarily exhaled o 1,200 ml ▪ Vital capacity o The total amount of exchangeable air o TV + IRV + ERV o 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women DEAD SPACE VOLUME-150ML in conducting zone ,never reaches alveoli FUNCTIONAL volume; 350ml in respi zone External respiration = between the alveoli and pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas exchange) o Internal respiration =between the blood and tissue cells (systemic capillary gas exchange) oxygen- attached hemoglobin =Hbo2\[oxyhemoglobin\] co2-plasma-HCO3\[bicarbonate ion\] CONTROL RESPIRATION; neural center;rate and depth -medulla=rhythm -pons=smoothes out BLOOD VESSELS and CIRCULATION OF BLOOD ✔ COVERINGS OF THE HEART Pericardium o Fibrous pericardium o Serous membrane ▪ Parietal pericardium: outside ▪ Visceral pericardium: next to heart;/epicardium ▪ Serous fluid fills the space ✔ WALLS OF THE HEART 1\. Epicardium 2. Myocardium 3. Endocardium FOUR CHAMBERS; ATRIA-receiving VENTRICLES -discharging SEPTUM; interatrial and intraventricular ARTERIES-AWAY VEINS TOWARD - - HEART VALVES; atrioventricular -between atria and ventricles, open=relax,close=contractions semilunar-between ventricle and artery ,the opposite. CARDIAC CIRCULATION; Two systems regulate heart activity BLOOD VESSELS; ✔ Vessels that carry blood away from the heart ✔ Vessels that play a role in exchanges between tissues and blood ✔ Vessels that return blood toward the heart MAJOR ARTERIES OF SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION ▪ Aorta -largest Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava BLOOD; slightly alkaline and higher than body temp. volume; 5-6 liters or 6 quarts 8% of body weight COMPOSITION; plasma living cels; ✔ Erythrocytes / RBC ✔ Leukocytes / WBC = granulocytes\[✔ Neutrophils ✔ Eosinophils ✔ Basophils\] , agranulocytes\[ ✔ Lymphocytes ✔ Monocytes \] ✔ Thrombocytes / Platelets PLASMA PROTEINS; albumin clotting proteins antibodies IMBALANCES OF RBC; anemia, SCA, polycythemia, IMBALANCES OF WBC;leukocytosis,luekopenia,leukemia ❖ List of the WBCs, from most to least abundant o Neutrophils o Lymphocytes o Monocytes o Eosinophils o Basophils Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas Hemostasis Step 1: vascular spasms Step 2: platelet plug formation Step 3: coagulation Disorders of Hemostasis o Undesirable clotting o Thrombus o Embolus o Bleeding disorders o Thrombocytopenia o Hemophilia HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS; o Blood contains genetically determined proteins known as antigens o Antibodies are the "recognizers" that bind foreign antigens BLOOD TYPING; o **Agglutination** or the lack of agglutination leads to identification of blood type NERVOUS SYSTEM mental activity; consciousness\[awareness\],memory\[encoding\],thinking\[using mind\] 2 principal cell type; **neuroglia/glial/glia/supporting cell** **neurons\[ source of info for protein synthesis \]** -nissle bodies\[rough er\] and -neurofibrils\[intermediate filaments types of neuroglia CNS PNS PROCESSES\[FIBERS\] - - - - other terms; cluster/collection of cell bodies; nuclei=cns ganglia-pns bundle of nerve fibers; tracts-CNS nerves-PNS - - NEURONS CLASSIFICATION functional; structural; REFLEXES; Five elements of a reflex arc 1\. Sensory receptor 2\. Sensory neuron 3\. Integration center (CNS) 4\. Motor neuron 5\. Effector organ ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM structural; CNS-brain & spinal cord PNS-somatic and autonomic\[symphatetic and parasympathetic\] BRAIN; 4 REGIONS= 1\. Cerebral hemispheres/ Cerebrum =balance ,precise timing ­ Cortex\[brocas and wernickes area\] ­White matter ­ Basal nuclei =regulate voluntary movements/ reward system, release dopamine 2\. Diencephalon 3\. Brainstem 4\. Cerebellum-balance,muscle coordination and posture LIMBIC SYSTEM PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Meninges -dura mater -arachnoid layer -pia mater Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) -VENTRICLES Blood-brain barrier-barrier against some substances BRAIN DYSFUNCTION Concussion \|contusion \| intracranial hemorrhage cerebral edema \| CVA \| TIA SPINAL CORD STRUCTURE PNS -spinal -cranial -ganglia NERVE STRUCTURE -endoneurium -perineurium -epineurium CRANIAL NERVES ---------------------------------- Oh -- Olfactory (I) Oh -- Optic (II) Oh -- Oculomotor (III) To -- Trochlear (IV) Touch -- Trigeminal (V) And -- Abducens (VI) Feel -- Facial (VII) Very -- Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Green -- Glossopharyngeal (IX) Vegetables -- Vagus (X) A -- Accessory (XI) H -- Hypoglossal (XII) ---------------------------------- SPINAL NERVES SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC -craniosacral division\[S2-S4, cranial nerves 3,7,9,10\] -rest and digest system\[D division\] ENS-ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM/INTRINSIC =mesh like system CONGENITAL BRAIN DISEASE -cerebral palsy -anencephaly -hydrocephalus -spina bifida REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM MALE; TESTES-blood vessesls, nerves, ductus deferens coverings=tunica albuginea, septa accessory organs; - - - Duct system Epididymis=immature sperm Ductus (vas) deferens =\[-ampulla-ejaculatory duct-ejaculation-\] Urethra\[ regions; \[ internal urethra sphincter =prevents urine (passing into urethra during ejaculation) and sperm (urinary bladder) External genitalia Penis-Regions of the penis Scrotum-3 degress lower than body temp. SPERMATOGENESIS=sperm production type A= stem cell type b=primary spermatocyte spermiogenesis=creation of mature sperm MALE HORMONES; FEMALE; OVARY/OVARIES - produce egg, estrogen, progesterone Ovarian follicles ­ Primary follicle---c immature oocyte ­ Vesicular (Graafian) follicle---growing follicle with a maturing oocyte **OVULATION**-follicle rupture-every 28 days-corpus luteum Ovary support DUCT SYSTEM; uterine /fallopian tubes-site of fertilization uterus-receive, retains, nourishes fertilized egg \[Uterine support= Broad ligament ,­ Round ligament,­ Uterosacral ligament \] layers of the uterus VAGINA-passageway/canal/copulation EXTERNAL GENITALIA \- ­ Mons pubis=fatty ­Labia=\[majora-hair covered. minora-hair free\] ­ Clitoris= erectile tissue ­ Greater vestibular glands= lubricates during intercourse ­ Vestibule -external openings of urethra & vagina OOGENESIS-producing ova Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty Ovulation of a secondary oocyte occurs with the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) HORMONE PRODUCTION BY THE OVARIES -Estrogens\[produced by follicle cells\] -Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum Stages of the menstrual cycle ­ Menstrual phase \[3-5 days, lowest levels\] ­ Proliferative stage \[regeneration of endometrium\] ­ Secretory stage\[rise of progesterone and blood supply\] MAMMAY GLANDS -areola -nipple -lobes -lobules -alveolar glands -lactiferous ducts -lactiferous sinus URINARY SYSTEM; excretion blood volume and pressure concentration of solutes ecf pH rbc synthesis vit d synthesis KIDNEY; -t12-l3 -Three protective layers enclose the kidney renal hilum-medial indentatiom renal sinus -cavity/opening \[3 regions= renal cortex,medulla,pelvis\] arterial blood supply NEPHRONS; 2 main structure= renal corpuscle\[ glomerulus -knot of capillaries and glomerular /bowmans capsule- surround glomerulus\] renal tubules\[ subdivisions are: o Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) o Nephron loop (loop of Henle) o Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) Nephrons based on location ✓Cortical nephrons ✓Juxtamedullary nephrons TWO capillary beds; NITROGENOUS WASTES; o **Urea**---end product of protein breakdown o **Uric acid**---results from nucleic acid metabolism o **Creatinine**---associated with creatine metabolism URINE CHARACTERISTICS; clear and pale to deep yellow\[urochrome0destruction of hemoglobin\] aromatic\[ammonia\] slightly acidic\[6\] Solutes normally found in urine ▪Sodium and potassium ions ▪Urea, uric acid, creatinine Ammonia \| Bicarbonate ions Solutes NOT normally found in urine Glucose \| Blood proteins \| Red blood cells \| Hemoglobin WBCs (pus) \| Bile **URETERS**=20-30cm\[10-12inch\] **URINARY BLADDER**=stores urine temporarily capacity;500ml \[or times 2\] **URETHRA**=thin walled tube o Internal urethral sphincter ▪Involuntary and made of smooth muscle o External urethral sphincter ▪Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle Micturition ▪Voiding, or emptying of the urinary bladder Body Fluid Compartments Water occupies three main fluid compartments ▪Fluids outside cells; includes blood plasma, interstitial fluid (IF), lymph, and transcellular fluid ❖Plasma (blood) Sources of Water Output Lungs (insensible since we cannot sense the water leaving) \| Perspiration \| Feces \| Urine Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Prevents excessive water loss in the urine ✓Inhibits diuresis by promoting water reabsorption by the kidneys Aldosterone regulate blood composition and blood volume Blood buffers Acids are proton (H+ ) donors Bases are proton (H+ ) acceptors  Bind to H+ when pH drops  Release H+ when pH rises Three major chemical buffer systems  Bicarbonate buffer system  Phosphate buffer system  Protein buffer system