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PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing c. Iliad and the Odyssey: foundational work of ancient CHAPTER 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY Gre...

PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing c. Iliad and the Odyssey: foundational work of ancient CHAPTER 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY Greek literature d. EPICS: shaped aspects of ancient Greek culture and education, fostering ideals of heroism, glory, and honor. ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF PHILO Φιλοσοφία in Greek ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY Greek origin (philosophia): (philo) love/loving and ILIAD ODYSSEY (sophia) wisdom/knowledge ABOUT: THE LOVE OF WISDOM: It is the pursuit of wisdom. quarrel between King (Ulysses): following the Agamemnon and the warrior chronicles of the PHILOSOPHER: lover of wisdom. (Pilosopo, positive Achilles during the last year ten-year journey of sense) of the Trojan War Odysseus as he tries to SOPHIST: wise or learned person. return home after the Trojan War. PHILOSOPHASTER: pretender to philosophical knowledge. (negative sense) THEME & STORY: explores the destructive tale of adventure, trials, PHILO: ACADEMIC DEFINITION nature of unchecked pride and the importance of constant search for TRUTH and MEANING in life. and the brutality of war. cleverness and explains the questions of cunning in overcoming general comprehension of reality through: honor, mortality, and the challenges. a. speculative, role of the gods in human b. theoretical, or affairs. c. reflective means. examination of the fundamental grounds, principles, THEME: revolves around the THEME: loyalty, wrath of Achilles, a Greek perseverance, the nature and nature of reality (being) [METAPHYSICS], warrior, and the tragic of heroism, and the knowledge [EPISTEMOLOGY], ideas [LOGIC], and consequences of his anger. complexity of human values [ETHICS]. relationships. It is a critical inquiry beyond the concrete and physical realm and all areas of thought (like religion, science, MORAL LESSON excessive pride and determination, politics, arts, and literature). uncontrolled emotions can intelligence, and It is the rational investigation and interpretation of lead to disastrous maintaining one's ties outcomes, affecting not only to home and family are reality. the individual but also the crucial in navigating the It fundamentally asks the question: “why” or the society as a whole. challenges of life's “why-ness” of things. journey. WHAT PHILOSOPHY DOES WHAT PHILO IS NOT *HESIOD & HOMER: accredited with establishing Greek religious ✅ opens discussion to a plurality of perspective. ❌ strictly speaking about science or doing scientific customs by ancient authors 2. HESIOD (750 and 650 BC) ✅ provides cogent theories work.❌ concern religion and a. Greek poet, around the same time as Homer. b. first written poet in the Western tradition to regard himself and interpretations of reality. as an individual persona with an active role to play in discuss religious ideas. ✅ clarifies ambiguous ❌ focus on politics or his subject. c. Major source on Greek mythology, farming concepts and questions techniques, early economic thought. unquestioned truths. engage in political speeches. d. introduced archaic Greek astronomy and ancient ✅ identifies the wrong state ❌ impose nor prescribe moral codes. time-keeping. “WORKS AND DAYS” of things. how to live a virtuous and prosperous life, offering ✅ explains (social, political, & ❌ provide a definitive answer or a final solution to guidance on farming, navigation, and proper behavior. story of Prometheus and Pandora, illustrating the moral) pathologies of the consequences of human actions and emphasizing the human condition. any problem or situation. importance of hard work, justice, and adherence to divine law. MORAL LESSON: living in harmony with the gods, working FROM MUTHOS TO LOGOS diligently, and acting justly can lead to a better life. shift in the mode of thinking: From idea that FATE is in the hands of gods/godesses “THE ILIAD” & “THE ODYSSEY” and “WORKS AND DAYS” in MUTHOS to LOGOS & origin of the world came from mythic explanation → marked transition from MUTHOS to LOGOS in idea that making sense of the world has CLEAR BASIS philosophical thought. and REASON ALTHOUGH: immersed in mythological elements and convey moral Origin: from more rational, grounded fact lessons through storytelling, MUTHOS: STORY LAID THE GROUNDWORK for a shift towards more myths, narratives, and stories rational and philosophical inquiry. conveyed moral, cultural, and religious truths. Greek thinkers (e.g., Thales, Anaximander) reasoned explanations LOGOS: REASON for natural phenomena and the underlying principles of the universe Discourse, logic, reasoned explanations (away from myth narratives) GREEK POETS: INFLUENCE AND CONTRIBUTION foundation for development → philosophers sought to 1. ​HOMER (born c. 8th century BC) understand through systematic reasoning and empirical a. Greek poet, observation → birth of philosophical schools and ideas. b. considered one of the most revered and influential [ from traditional myths and narratives to rational inquiry and logical authors in history. explanation: contribute to the rich tradition of Western philosophy. ] PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing STUPEFACTION, QUESTIONING “What is the ultimate element that constitutes the universe? AND PERENNIAL SEARCH 1. THALES: WATER MILETUS (587 BC) a. First philosopher seaport town (city), center of many things (hubbub of b. Most basic stuff (everything needs water, everything development), has moist) MILESIANS: first philosophers 2. ANAXIMANDER: APEIRON (unlimited; boundless) PHILOSOPHY BEGAN IN WONDER a. unoriginated and indestructible primary substance of SOCRATES: “Wonder is the beginning of Wisdom,” things. THAUMA (Greek): Wonder b. The infinite, beyond myth Awe, amazement, admiration or marvel, 3. ANAXIMENES: AIR STUPEFACTION: more faithful translation a. Primary substance which constitutes all reality Acc. to Oliver Feltham means: b. “Water is condensed air” - air thinner than water state of confusion drives us to ask and doubt 4. HERACLITUS: FIRE moves us to seek the answer a. Creative and transformative element that makes up urges us to ask the perennial questions in life. reality QUESTIONING: real knowledge does not end in awe b. “The only constant in life is change” - FIRE is always Needs great deal of doubt in motion, burns everything Too much doubt = RADICAL SKEPTICISM *CHANGE: from love → hate *inquiry w/o any goal or grounding VULCAN (God): wrath of the God is associated with volcanoes *may lead to being MYOPIC (have no imagination) —> in 5. ANAXAGORAS: NATURAL CAUSES contrast to PHILOSOPHY: go after answer in ultimate sense a. Natural causes; not the gods shape reality b. *seeds scattered in space (tied knots) - made up of ALAIN BADIOU: PERENNIAL QUESTIONS infinitesmal fragments* - EARTH SCI *PERENNIAL: long-lasting, enduring, “answers that endure” Philosophical Questions are grounded to: 6. PARMENIDES: REALITY (as a plurality) IS AN ILLUSION 1. Choice a. The Universe is ONE 2. Meaning 7. PYTHAGORAS: NUMBERS 3. Life a. First cause of existence “WHAT IS THE MEANING OF LIFE?” b. PLATO: math is the highest form of knowledge PHILOSOPHY VS SCIENCE 8. EMPEDOCLES: OPPOSITES While both attempts to pursue the truth and rational inquiry, a. Contradiction is the only thing constant in life philosophy transcends the concrete and anything empirical. b. Life & death, good & bad PHILOSOPHY SCIENCE 9. DEMOCRITUS & LEUCIPPUS (teacher): ATOMIC A. science of all things. A. examines the nature of UNIVERSE B. examines the ultimate reality through empirical a. We are composed of particles called ATOMS causes and principles of observation and (indivisible/inseparable) reality. experimentation. b. Building blocks C. fundamental study and What makes science, science? ROLE OF MUTHOS IN EARLY GREEK THOUGHT creation of concepts. 1. Measurable (1) CULTURAL FOUNDATION: D. rationally explains and 2. Predictable framework for understanding the world before the seeks the truth. 3. Observable advent of philosophy. E. questions everything. 4. Repetition Pre-Socratics inherited this tradition but began to 5. Beneficial question and reinterpret these narratives. (2) SUPERNATURAL BELIEFS: MAIN PROBLEM OF PHILOSOPHY Magic and supernatural explanations were intertwined what are the problems which philosophy seeks to address and with early Greek cosmology. examine? not entirely abandoned but transformed as philosophers ANCIENT - they begin to ask about the ARCHE [ORIGIN] sought more systematic explanations. of things. [ muthos (supernatural beliefs) → natural beliefs (arche) → What is the ULTIMATE element that makes up the logos (reason) ] | MAGIC + PHILO = SCIENCE COSMOS? TRANSITION TO LOGOS INTRO TO THE PRE-SOCRATICS interplay between magic, philosophy, and science. NATURAL THINKERS: Early Greek thinkers (6th – 5th centuries) (1) MAGIC AND PHILOSOPHY: Philo did NOT outright reject magic laid the groundwork for Western philosophy. but sought to understand it rationally from mythological (muthos) to rational (logos) Pre-Socratics USED muthos to convey their ideas, explanations of the world. recognizing power in shaping thought. relationship between magic, supernatural beliefs, and the (2) SCIENCE EMERGENCE: emergence of philosophy and science. naturalistic and rational approaches. DEVELOPMENT OF SCI: empirical observation began ANCIENT PERIOD to REPLACE mythological narratives. PRE-SOCRATIC PERIOD (624-370 BC) Few written traces and allusions exist SOCRATIC ERA (500-200 BC) Before time of Socrates or live as his contemporary. ‘LOGOCENTRISM’ AND ‘ANTHROPOCENTRISM.’ NATURAL THINKERS - not Philosophers I. SOCRATES (469-399) view the world as a ‘Mythology.’ “FATHER OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY.” COSMOCENTRISM - universe-centered Philosophy begins with the discovery of soul. PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: Excellence (arête) of the soul (psyche) METHOD: MEDIEVAL PERIOD (500-1500 AD) SOCRATIC METHOD: Dialectical questioning “THEOCENTRISM” Knowledge: Within each individual, drawn out through START: Fall of Western Roman Empir​​e’ (476 A.D.). critical questioning and self-examination “MIDDLE AGES” or “DARK AGES”: period of EMPHASIS:: Self-awareness, ‘intellectual dormancy.’ introspection, and pursuit of dreadful diseases were rampant. wisdom through rational most Western European countries under control of the inquiry Catholic Church. Questioning assumptions most stories were passed on by word of mouth (oral and seeking deeper tradition) understanding of the human psyche and nature of truth HIGHLIGHTS: HIGHLIGHTS: 1. Scholasticism: sticking stubbornly to one specific Challenged religious method of teaching authorities 2. Faith and Reason: Balancing faith and reason in Promoted dialectical inquiry understanding the world. Exemplified the ethical life 3. Universals and Nominalism: Debates about the nature importance of definition and conceptual analysis of general concepts. knowledge ≠ wisdom 4. Aristotelian Revival: Rediscovery and study of Disdained willful ignorance Aristotle's works. Promoted philosophical reflection 5. Mysticism: union or communion with a deity, or divine Embodied the Socratic Method being. IMPACT: 6. Islamic Influence: Impact of Islamic culture and TRIAL & EXECUTION: Inspired Plato knowledge on the West. (knowledge is a virtue) 7. Role of Universities: Institutions of learning and II. PLATO (429-347) intellectual advancement wrote DIALOGUES (in memory of Socrates) MODERN PERIOD (1600 C.E. – 19TH C.) FOUNDER OF THE “PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY” ACADEMY: prominent OBJECT: human person (rational being) student of Socrates and AGE OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY AND ENLIGHTENMENT rationality, industrialization, urbanization, and a established the Academy in questioning of traditional beliefs Athens. criticizes & rejects traditional concepts of truth and PHILO CONTRIBS: work authority. covered metaphysics, ethics, EMPHASIS: role and power of reason → know TRUTH politics, and epistemology. nature and role of consciousness/ rational will → THEORY OF FORMS (OR knowing and interpreting reality. IDEAS): posited that the material world is a reflection HIGHLIGHTS: of higher, unchanging realities, impacting our 1. Experimentation and Innovation understanding of the human person and the nature of 2. Fragmentation and Dislocation reality. 3. Individualism and Identity EXPLORATION OF HUMAN NATURE: discussions of 4. Rejection of Tradition justice, the soul, and the allegory of the cave provide insights into human nature, knowledge, and virtue. POST-MODERN PERIOD (1970s-PRESENT) III. ARISTOTLE (384-322) movement of thoughts in arts and literature Contemporary drift from modern period Student of Plato: Followed REACTION AGAINST PERCEIVED CONSTRAINTS Plato's teachings but departed AND RIGIDITY OF MODERNISM: denial of established from his idealism. dogma, structure, principles, of modernism FOUNDER OF LOGIC: DISCARDS OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE: suspicious of Known as the "Father of monolithic truth, universality, rationality, and structural Syllogistic (Formal) Logic." progress. Diverse Philosophical PLURALISM & SKEPTICISM: Embraces diversity, Contributions: Covered questions grand narratives, and blurs cultural metaphysics, ethics, distinctions. biology, and politics. REJECT MODERNISM’S NOTIONS OF RATIONALITY, SCIENTIFIC METHOD: CONTROL, PROGRESS, UNITY, AND TRUTH. Emphasized empirical observation and systematic ➔ No clear presuppositions of truth. approach to knowledge. ➔ No fixed human nature. EUDAIMONIA: Offered a comprehensive understanding ➔ No foundations of truth. of ethics and virtue through the concept of ➔ Perspectival truth "flourishing" or "well-being." Explored human nature, reason, emotion, and virtuous habits. CALLED ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: "Ille Philosophus" (The Philosopher). PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing HIGHLIGHT: TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH METAPHYSICS 1. Consumerism and Mass Culture SPECIAL METAPHYSICS theology, cosmology, anthropology 2. Distrust of Metanarratives COSMOLOGY origin of the universe, studies the universe 3. Hyperreality and Simulation: simulated world is more real than reality PSYCHOLOGY psyche mind, logos study, study of 4. Parody and Pastiche (imitate style of previous work) nature and dynamics of the human person 5. Pluralism and Relativism (truth is subjective) TELOS OF PHILOSOPHY QUESTIONS EXAMPLES PYTHAGORAS (570-495 BCE) What is the nature of PLATO: often associated with Posits the idea of philosophus: someone who, in all his reality or being? metaphysical questions *exploration of the nature of reality might, pursues wisdom through his Theory of Forms. PURSUIT OF WISDOM: never ending task What exists beyond the ARISTOTLE: engaged in telos of philosophy never ends. physical world? metaphysical inquiry, discussing TELOS - end goal concepts like substance, potentiality, Philosophy is defined by Pythagoras and actuality. love of wisdom EPISTEMOLOGY = “How do we know” ○ Philein - love Also known as the THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE ○ Sophia - wisdom It comes from Greek words: PHILOSOPHY ○ ἐπιστήμη – episteme - which means Philosophy is the “knowledge” or “science” (1) science: observes rigors of science ○ λόγος, - logos/logoi - reason (2) science of all things: object (studied), subject (studies), Studies nature, origins, extent, constraints, and product (effect of interaction) validity of knowledge. PHILO’s OBJECT - everything Examines how we acquire, justify, and evaluate our (3) science of all things through its ultimate causes and beliefs and assumptions. principles: bid time and wait for the right moment Concerned with how our minds are related to reality, (4) science of all things through its ultimate causes and whether these relationships are valid or invalid principles acquired through the use of natural reason: use of QUESTIONS EXAMPLES reason, unalloyed and unaltered What is knowledge? RENÉ DESCARTES employed the deeper way of thinking or understanding the things that method of doubt and journeyed to happen all around us or the things that we do How do we know what we attain unquestionable knowledge using reason to attain the truth know? in his work “Meditations on First Philosophy.” search for truth, reasons, causes, and meaning How do we acquire His focus on skepticism and SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE knowledge? foundationalism aimed to establish BERTRAND RUSSEL’s “The Value of Philosophy” What are the sources and a criterion of truth based on clear VALUE: resides in its ambiguity or uncertainty limits of human knowledge? and distinct principles. SIGNIFICANCE: recognize that the answer is not yet complete ETHICS = “what should i do” value of philosophy is ironically sought through all the THEORY OF WHAT IS RIGHT AND WRONG accusations leveled against it (Russel) It comes from the Greek word: - “Ethos” - which means custom, habit, or character CHAPTER 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING Oftentimes called MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Simply an examination of what constitutes good BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY behavior. Deals with questions of morality, values, and principles METAPHYSICS = “what is out there” that guide human behavior. Comes from the Greek words: - μετά (metá), meaning “beyond” or “after” right and wrong, virtue, and the nature of the good life. - φυσικά (physiká), meaning “physical” how we should order our lives, what goals we should Meta = beyond physical (tangible, visible) seek, and what should count with us most THEORY OF REALITY AND NATURE OF BEING QUESTIONS EXAMPLES Questions reality and being What is the right thing to do? IMMANUEL KANT’s ARISTOTLE: METAPHYSICS = “First philosophy.” deontological ethics, presented Concerned with first principles and underlying nature What makes actions morally in his “Groundwork of the of the cosmos. right or wrong? Metaphysics of Morals.” FIRST PRINCIPLE: What is the nature of This draws the idea that moral 1>2 where the first is the perfect and ultimate form and all that morality? duties can be framed as follows are less or are dependent on the first. imperative commands also called as the uncaused cause or the prime How should we act? mover. It states that anything that follows the first is less perfect What is the basis for ethical For him, the only intrinsically judgments? and unconditionally good is a Studies the ultimate principles of existence that are good will. beyond science. *inherent goods, whether Explores fundamental nature of reality = existence, intellectual or moral, can be being, space, time, property, reality, and the relationship used for negative purposes between mind and matter. PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing (vicious will) and are morally 1. the development of appropriate scientific methodologies valuable only when 2. investigation of epistemological issues encountered in accompanied by a good will. individual sciences 3. Clarify scientific terms (fact, hypothesis, theory, or proof verification, confirmation, law, ETC.) TERM ASSOCIATED WITH PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AESTHETICS = “What life can be like” PSEUDOSCIENCE a proposition, a finding or a system THEORY OF BEAUTY, or more broadly, the of explanation that is presented as science but that lacks the rigor PHILOSOPHY OF ART: nature and valuation of what is essential to the scientific method beautiful IN GENERAL: critical examination of art, culture, and nature. QUESTIONS EXAMPLES nature of beauty, art, and the criteria for evaluating artistic What is the nature of scientific KARL POPPER’s ideas on creations. knowledge? Falsifiability and THOMAS concepts of artistic expression, interpretation, and the does science describe and explain KUHN’s concept of nature of aesthetic value. the world? scientific paradigms have What you see BEYOND is more beautiful than what you What distinguishes science from shaped this branch. see IN the picture (something beautiful is a mere illusion) pseudoscience? PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION QUESTIONS EXAMPLES Questions RELIGION AND ITS GROUND What is beauty? EDMUND BURKE’s exploration Examines religious claim by asserting or criticizing of the sublime and the beautiful Branch where religious arguments and claims are What makes something a work in his “A Philosophical Enquiry of art? carefully rationalized and analyzed into the Origin of Our Ideas of evaluation and analysis of: the Sublime and Beautiful.” 1. religious knowledge, How do we appreciate art? PLATO: art imitates the 2. the meaninglessness of religious language objects and events of ordinary 3. the reasons for believing in God life. A work of art is a copy of 4. the link between religion and reason. a copy of a Form. critically evaluate and intellectually defend the *more of an illusion than is ordinary experience. underlying assertions of any religious, metaphysical, or transcendental knowledge or declaration regarding the works of art are at best hereafter. entertainment and at worst a QUESTIONS EXAMPLES dangerous delusion. How does language influence our FREGE’S PUZZLE and POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY thoughts? Can thoughts exist without the GETTIER language? PROBLEM ‘we live in a social and political context that tries to build an ordered and well-balanced society based on What is the role of language in fairness, mutual respect, and civic harmony’ shaping our concepts and perception Deals with: origins of the state, nature and structure of of the world? political and social systems, llink between political Does language mirror reality, or is it a freedoms &idealisms, human rights, challenges, and human construct? issues, and so on. explains and justifies individual's structures, PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE institutions, and idealisms in establishing and living in a Origins and use of human language political society. Link between Meaning and truth How languages connects to human mind, TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY comprehension, and reality itself ARISTOCRACY DEMOCRACY Concerned with: People should be governed by a Government for the people, by 1. grammatical characteristics of linguistic few elites that are philosophers. the people, and of the people. expressions (meaning & reference) PLATO: this is the “best form of For the Greeks, this is the governance”. (He is biased to this worst form of governance 2. the objects inferred or expressed by linguistic form as he is an Aristocrat) although they created it. forms Demos – people, Kratos – 3. the characteristics of utterances as a function of Rule syntactic and interpersonal conditions. QUESTIONS EXAMPLES about the syntax, semiotics, and semantics of language and linguistic expressions. What is the best form of JOHN LOCKE’s Social government? Contract theory and his ideas QUESTIONS EXAMPLES on natural rights, as presented in What is the relationship between LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN’S What are the rights and duties “Two Treatises of Government. language and reality? work on ‘Language games’ of citizens? How do words and symbols convey and meaning has been PLATO: “philosopher kings meaning? influential in this area. What is an ideal ruler? should be the rulers” as all philosophers aim to discover the LOGIC ideal polis. THEORY OF CORRECT REASONING AND THINKING Greek 'logikós,' which means 'reason’ or ‘discourse.' PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE CONCERNED WITH: reasoning and reasoning is a kind of thinking. PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing solve a problem, decide, or determine what is true. detect intersubjective value to develop empathic think purposefully and arrive at a truthful and reasonable understanding towards others conclusion Involve others in the decision making process study principles of valid reasoning and argumentation. individuals work together Develop a science of reasoning open communication, trust, and diverse viewpoints to It focuses on the rules of correct inference and the enhance creativity and promote novelty structure of valid arguments. Allow dynamic process to evolve. TERM ASSOCIATED WITH LOGIC ARISTOTLE is the father of TRADITIONAL LOGIC WHAT IS TRUTH? Object of all philosophical investigation It is the highest of all human values. QUESTIONS EXAMPLES PHILO: to know and understand truth What makes an argument valid? Aristotle’s contributions to Something that we cannot single handedly define syllogistic logic, as outlined *we have different THEORIES to explain truth How can we ensure sound in his work “Prior Analytics.” reasoning? AN ANALYSIS: IF TRUTH IS ABSOLUTE IF TRUTH IS NOT What are the rules of sound ABSOLUTE reasoning? It is accessible to every rational It is accessible but becomes How can we distinguish valid intelligent being relative to the view arguments from fallacies? It is knowable by any thinking Generally becomes subjective person or personal ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING Becomes culture-bounded INDEPENDENT THINKING Subject to censure or critique develop and execute one's own ideas without being Error can be likely impossible, Errors are probable and open influenced or prejudiced by others. or it could be avoided to misinterpretation forming one’s own judgements, making decisions Is objective and independent of More than two or more based on personal reasoning and experiences and beliefs or emotions interpretations often questioning established norms or beliefs. To think critically and creatively without relying on TRUTH AND THEORIES OF TRUTH heavier authority or the opinions of others. REALISM PROACTIVE THINKING BASIC ASSUMPTION: arrange and initiate the best course of action ahead of The mind can know the truth. There is reality outside the mind and time (crucial in decision-making) it can be known in and through experience and inferential anticipating future challenges and opportunities judgment (Scientific Discoveries) initiative to address problems before they arise MEANING: planning, foresight, and taking responsible action to shape philosophical belief which comprises correspondence favorable outcomes between mental representations and reality Anticipate the consequences What we believe is just an approximation of reality. PLANNING TO FAIL MEANS FAILING TO PLAN Used in explaining moral or psychological problems *REACTIVE THINKING: opposite of proactive (responding as it THEORY OF CORRESPONDENCE happens) Ideas are held true if they correspond with reality (Historical Facts) CONTEXTUAL THINKING Contrast: IDEALISM ground one’s judgment according to a specific reference or framework. Deciding proactively based on certain circumstances RELATIVISM or situations. BASIC ASSUMPTION: truth cannot be known in itself since it is understand and interpret information within its situational always relative or dependent on a person. framework MEANING: considering broader context (social, cultural, and Truth is Subjective and EPISTEMOLOGICAL environmental factors) which can influence how Learning: only possible within the sphere of our mental information is perceived and utilized. states or conditions Avoids making decisions based on universal principles dependent on state of perception and knowing such as *situation-based culture and personal judgment Contrast: OBJECTIVISM or ABSOLUTISM CREATIVE THINKING 1. MORAL RELATIVISM: Morality is grounded to culture recognize the totality of reality by using one's a. What is deemed moral is based on one’s culture imagination and ingenuity 2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM: Broader concept of relativism Thinking outside the box but not being stubborn or a. Complements moral relativism cynical [new ideas, concepts, or solutions] *morality is subsumed by culture ○ outside standard confines of traditional logic and reasoning SUMMARY use of imagination, originality, and open mindedness REALISM RELATIVISM to approach problems in innovative ways idea is real if you can do moral truth is bound to one’s COLLABORATIVE THINKING experiments regarding it. culture PHILO NOTES 11STEM-12 | CHAPTER 1 & 2: Doing Philosophy & Methods of Philosophizing Through experience and Truth is relative so one’s ○ This theory ensures logical coherence and judgment, our beliefs can background and perception. avoids logical contradiction. correspond with objective reality WHAT IS THE ESSENTIAL VALUE OF STUDYING PHILOSOPHY? PRAGMATISM BASIC ASSUMPTION: value of truth is dependent on its result or BERTRAND RUSSEL (Oxford Philosopher): value of studying consequence (practicality) philosophy lies in its uncertainty of giving exact knowledge and MEANING: truth is practical and beneficial to oneself incompleteness of providing answers. what’s the point of knowing if its not useful workable outcomes PHILOSOPHY: FATHER: Charles Sanders Pierce offers an approximation of knowledge. Something is true if it satisfies the following: (merit-based) enlarges the soul and elevates our consciousness 1. Use or utility both in extent and in depth 2. Workable or doable VALUE: lies in the nourishment of the soul and improvement of 3. Should be satisfactory or beneficial the mind, not the body. *ex: Technology and Problem-Solving, Medical Treatments does not rely on scientific explanations. Also called: INSTRUMENTALISM, PRACTICALISM, “why-ness” of things. CONSEQUENTIALISM, UTILITARIANISM. studied for its own sake, that is, for the sake of PHENOMENOLOGY understanding. BASIC ASSUMPTION: The value of truth is dependent on one’s personal experience and subjective judgment. Why is philosophical reflection important in the study of STUDY OF ESSENCES AND THEIR RECOVERY philosophical anthropology? Truth is Subjective and EXPERIENCIAL Study of Appearances helps us amplify understanding of concepts, identify Something is true if you have experienced and the wrong state of things, and expand our horizons to perceived it explain and elaborate intricate theories, issues, and the ○ Study of structures of consciousness as complexities of reality (need insightful and reflective experienced in the 1ST POV illumination) TRANSCENDENTAL PHILOSOPHY: suspends our inherent the DIALOGICAL SPIRIT AND COMMUNICATIVE preconceptions (natural attitude) in order to comprehend reality. DISCOURSE must be fostered and strengthened by Ex: Art and Aesthetic Experience, Mindful Meditation, PE philosophical illuminations. COMPARISON PHENOMENOLOGY RELATIVISM Truth is based on first hand Truth is based on knowledge experiences not necessarily experienced first hand EXPERIENCIAL EPISTEMOLOGICAL Japan is beautiful because I saw Japan is beautiful because I and went there. have read about it being beautiful SUMMARY PRAGMATISM PHENOMENOLOGY Truth: beneficial and focus on Based on experience rather workable outcomes than external analysis or interpretation It is true if it is practical and useful Based on first person’s point of view and intentional awareness of experience THEORY OF AXIOMS BASIC ASSUMPTION: assumption that is regarded as true and accurate such as theorems in math MEANING: self-evidently true, any logical inference or rational argument may be constructed. AXIOMS: employed in statements and arguments to prevent contradictions, conflicts, and/or useless questions. Precise and accurate and avoids logical contradictions EXAMPLES: EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY ○ “Through any two points, there is one straight line” ○ forms the basis for further logical deductions LOGICAL STATEMENTS ○ a statement cannot be true and false at the same time.