‎⁨المراجعة_المركزة_متميزين_2024_ماهر_نايف⁩ PDF

Introduction : There are two types from a structural point of view: The first type: prokaryotic cell as bacterial cell , The second type: eukaryotic cell and it has clear nucleus Surrounded by a nuclear membrane and cell organelles Fill the blank : 1- the first scientist maybe he could see the cell Antoine Van Leeuwen-hoek invented 2-The first scientist use the word (cell) Robert Hooke when he examined the structure of oak tree cortex. 3-scientist described corky units in cork tissue Robert Hooke 4-The Scottish scientist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus of the cell and described it Q: what is the definition of the cell as defined by the scientist Robert Hooke ? aerobic chamber similar to bee hive. Mathias Schleidein concluded that all plants are consist of cells Theodor Schwann concluded that all animals are consist of cells Q: What are the basics of cell theory?(‫\خ‬2\2016 )( ‫\ خ‬2019) (2023\‫)ت‬ a-All organisms are made of cell or cells. b- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all organisms. c- One cell come from another cell by means of cell division. Mathias Schleidien And Theoder Schawnn described Cell Theory Q: What is the origin of cell ? Ans: from other cells by cell division Q:Define the following : 1. Cell Theory: is the theory that created by the scientists Mathias Schleidien and Theoder Schawnn all organisms are made of cell or cells cells are the basic structural and functional units of all organisms one cell come from another cell by means of cell division. 2. The cell: it is the basic structural and functional of organisms and cells come from other cells by means of cell division Q:Describe the following scientific facts? 1-The frog’s egg can be seen by naked eye? Ans:-Because the diameter of the frog’s egg is 1 mm which is big enough to be seen by naked eye 2- why can’t the human egg be seen by naked eye? It can be seen by light microscope? Ans:-Because the human egg has a diameter of 100 micrometer Which is so small for naked eye to see, so we use light microscope 3- Cells have specific specialities ? Ans:-to increase its efficiency of various functions. 4- Cell organelles , viruses and organic particles can only be seen by electron microscope? Ans:-Because its size is so small and its diameter is less than human egg (100 micrometer) and so it’s difficult to see it by light microscope. It can only be seen by the electron microscopy. ____________________________________________________________________________________ Prokaryotic Cell Q: what is the chemical structure of bacterial cell wall ?(1\2023) A\ protein Lipids and polysaccharides Q: explain the following sentences? 1-Prokaryotic cell is un developed cell (‫\ خ‬2\2016)? because it is more primitive in shape and structure. 2- bacteria can (or mycoplasma or bluish green algae) build protein ? A\ because it has a lot of ribosomes in cytoplasm that its function is to build protein particles in cell. Q\ What are the Characterized of the prokaryotic Cell:- (1\2022)( ‫ \ت‬2023) 1-less developed than eukaryotic cells 2- smaller in size than eukaryotic cells 3-prokaryotic cell has genetic material without a membrane and it is called as nuclear zone or Nucleoid 4-prokaryotic cell cytoplasm has no membranous organelles like golgi bodies and mitochondria. It has ribosome in the form of numerous small grains which build proteins 5-prokaryotic cell is represented by blue green algae , bacteria and Mycoplasma which all belong to Monera. 1-surrounded by a solid wall consist of chemical compounds(protein Lipids and polysaccharides ) 2- behind this wall there is the plasma membrane ( it is a semi – fluid membrane) surrounds the cytoplasm. 3- which contains the nucleoid there are no nuclei or nuclear envelope , un like eukaryotice cells.There are ribosome in cytoplasm. 4- some types of moving bacteria have flagella or pili or both 1 General appearance of bacterial cell Structure General appearance Cell covering -Cell wall -plasma membrane Cytoplasm -Nucleoid -Ribosome Suffixes -Flagella -Fimbriae -Sex pili Eukaryotic Cell :-it’s the cell has true nucleus, this cell is found in Protists , Fungi , plants and nimals Eukaryotic cells consist of three major components : a. Cell wall in plant cell and plasma Membrane in the both plant and animal cell b. Cytoplasm c. Nucleus Q: What is the shape of eukaryotic cells with examples: A-fixed shapes, some are spherical pyramidal tubular , cubic oval , flat , astral , and fusiform …etc..B- Some of cells have varying shape that change from time to time like amoeba Q: Explain the following::. 1- Cells differ in their shapes? A: due to the function of these cells , because cells often have shapes that adapt the functions 2:- the shape of amoeba change from time to time ? A: Changing the shape of amoeba is due to the function it do. 3-The cell needs a surface area (plasma membrane)? A: So that it can exchange materials with surrounding environment appropriately Q: Give an example of a cell whose shape changes from time to time? Ans: Amoeba Compare between Eukaryotic cell and Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell 1- It is found in Protists , Fungi , plants and 1- It is represented by blue green algae , Animals bacteria and Mycoplasma which all belong to Monera. 2- It has true nucleus surrounded by a 2- It has genetic material without a membrane nuclear membrane. and it is called as nucleus zone or Nucleoid 3-Cytoplasm contains membranous 3-Cytoplasm does not contain membranous organelles, such as mitochondria and plastids. organelles, such as mitochondria and plastids. 4- More developed than Prokaryotic cell 4- Less developed than Eukaryotic cell. 5- Bigger than Prokaryotic cell. 5- Smaller in size than Eukaryotic cell 6- Plant cells have a cell wall and 6- It has a cell wall and plasma membrane. plasma membrane, while animal cells have only a plasma membrane 2 Cell wall:- exists only on plant cells ,it is an outer thick wall surrounding the cell , and it covers the plasma membrane , which lies inside. Cell wall provides protection and support to plasma membrane and cytoplasm Cell wall has three layers Middle Lamella ,Primary wall and secondary wall Chemically, cell wall consists of cellulose in young cells , and thickens when lignin is added in older cells Q: What’s the chemical composition of the following ? 1-cell wall in plant cells.(1\2013) (‫\ ت‬2017 )(3\2019)(3\2020)(‫\ ت‬2023) cell wall consists of cellulose in young cells , and thickens when lignin is added in older cell Q: Fill in the blanks:- the cell wall only found in plant cell. (‫\ خ‬1\2016) Q:what is the location of cellulose ?(2\2021) In cell wall of plant cells Q: Explain : the plant cell under the microscope is clear border? A: Because the plant cells have thick cell wall that surrounds the cell components and the plasma membrane. It is clear under the microscope Q: Compare between cell wall in plant cells and cell wall in bacteria Cell wall in plant cell Cell wall in bacteria cell 1-found only on-the outer surface of plant cells 1- found in outer surface of bacteria cells (in prokaryotic cells) 2 -thick wall 2 - solid wall 3- chemically consists of cellulose in young 3- consist of chemical compounds ( cells and thickens when lignin is added in protein Lipids and older cells polysaccharides ) Q\ what is the location of cell wall : exists only on plant cells ,it is an outer thick wall surrounding the cell , and it covers the plasma membrane Q\ What is the function of cell wall : provides protection and support to plasma membrane and cytoplasm. Q: Define : plasma member(3\2019) :- It consists of two thin layers of phospholipids that has a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end. the two layers are separated protein particle thatallows and controls passage of materials. Q: what is the function of plasma membrane ?(2000\1)(1988\2) (1987\1) 1- it allows and controls passage of materials 2- it is surrounding the cytoplasm in Eukaryotic Q: what does the plasma membrane consist of ? Explain (2011\2) Ans : It consists of two thin layers of phospholipids that has a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end. the two layers are separated protein particle that allows and controls passage of materials. Q\What’s the function of protein molecules in the plasma membrane? A: allow and control the passage of material Q\what is the location of phospholipids ?( 2\2021) A : plasma membrane 3 Q: compare between Cell wall and Plasma membrane ?(1\2003) (1\91) Cell wall Plasma membrane 1- surrounds the cytoplasm in plant cells 1- surrounds the cytoplasm in eukaryotic only and prokaryotic cells and it’s not found in and prokaryotic cells ( in all cells ) animal cells 2- provides protection and support to 2- It allows and controls passage of plasma membrane and cytoplasm. materials between the cell and its outer circumference. 3- It chemically consists of cellulose in young 3- It chemically consists of two thin layers cells and thickens when lignin is added in of phospholipids that has a hydrophilic older cells end and a hydrophobic end. the two layers are separated protein particle that allows and controls passage of materials. 4-Permeable membrane. 4- selectively permeable 5- it consists of three layers 5- It consists of two thin layers of -Middle Lamella -Primary wall -secondary phospholipids wall 6-a thick membrane (varies with different 6- Very thin membrane that can’t be plant cells ) can be seen by light microscope seen by light microscope only under the electronic microscope (it thickness is constant in cells ) Define Cytoplasm:- represents the part that lies between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It is a complex material consisting of (80 %) water, (15%)proteins and (5% ) fat, sugars and salts. Cytoplasm consists of many cellular organelles, which stand for living structures in cytoplasm. It also contains non- living components represented by particles formed by activities of cell organelles. Q: The chemical components for cytoplasm is 80%water 15% protein 5% fat, sugars and salts Q: What’s the origin of non -living components A/it’s formed by activities of cell organelles Q: What is the Location of cytoplasm? A/ between the plasma membrane and the nucleus Define \Endoplasmic Reticulum :- has reticulate interconnected system of tubules and vesicles, attached to plasma membrane at certain places and attached to nuclear membrane at other places. Endoplasmic reticulum is the place where lipids, carbohydrates and proteins are made. It is called “Endoplasmic” because of branches and interlocks with each other. Endoplasmic reticulum is divided into two types: Define \Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ( R E R ) This type of endoplasmic reticulum has ribosome on its tubules; they look rough and granular. This type has active role in building proteins They help transport materials inside the cell especially to Golgi bodies, It also acts as a structural reticulum of intra – cytoplasm material Define \Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum ( S E R ) diﬀers from rough endoplasmic reticulum in that they have no ribosome, thus, they are smooth. As in the case of rough endoplasmic reticulum, of rough endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth reticulum transfers materials inside the cell and acts as a structural reticulum of intra-cytoplasm material. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a vital role in detoxifcation of drugs and medications. They are the place for building and concentration of fats. Thus, they appear in cells of ovary, testicles and two adrenal glands. They secrete steroid hormones Q: What's the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (1\2008) A\ 1-building proteins 2. They help transport materials inside the cell especially to Golgi bodies 3. acts as a structural reticulum of intra – cytoplasm material. Q: What's the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (2014) (1\95) 1- acts as a structural reticulum of intra cytoplasm material 2. transfers materials inside the cell 4 3. has a vital role in detoxification of drugs and medications 4. They are the place for building and concentration of fats 5. They secrete steroid hormones Q: DefineRibosome(2022)(1\2015) :- It's a rough granule found On the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.it build proteins and it is found it in the cytoplasm of the prokaryotic cells Q: who is responsible for 1- secrete steroid hormones(1\2022)(2\2017) (1\2014) A:- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 2- building and concentration of fats(2\2019) Q: Where does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum found alot and what's its function?(2\2014) The smooth endoplasmic reticulum found alot in the ovary , testicles and Adrenal glands.it transfers materials inside the cell and acts as a structural reticulum of intra cytoplasm material. They are the place for building and concentration of fats a vital role in detoxification of drugs and medications. They secrete steroid hormones. Q: Why the smooth endoplasmic reticulum found alot in the cells of ovary , testis and Adrenal glands?(1\2019) A:-Because the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the place for building and concentration of fats. Thus, they appear in cells of ovary, testicles and two adrenal glands. They secrete steroid hormones. Q: what is the origin of lipids is animal cells ? A:-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Q: Compare between Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum rough endoplasmic reticulum Appear in the cell Testis, ovaries and adrenal gland Found in all eukaryotic cells 1. transfers materials inside the cell 1. building proteins 2. acts as a structural of intra- cytoplasm material 2. They help transport materials inside 3. They are the place for building and the cell especially to Golgi bodies. concentration of fats 3. acts as a structural reticulum of intra 4. a vital role in detoxification of drugs and – cytoplasm medications 5. They secrete steroid hormones. 3- they have no ribosome 3- has ribosomes 4-It is reticulate interconnected system of tubules 4- It is reticulate interconnected system and vesicles of tubules and vesicles 5- it has a smoth surface because it is clear from 5- it has a rough surface because of ribosomes so it can't building proteins the ribosomes so it building proteins Golgi Apparatus :-It is a secretory apparatus and first described by scientist camillo Golgi in1898 while studying on neurons. Golgi apparatus has a special location in the cytoplasm between the nucleus and plasma membrane It is hard to identify its certain location and it differs in shape and size from one cell to another Q: Define cisternae(2\2011) : It is a chamber marked by smooth membranes is (3 - 10) flat saccules and it is one of golgi components. Q: What is the location of the following ? cisternae : in Golgi apparatus as flat saccules. dictyosomes :in cytoplasm a plant cell a special location between the nucleus and plasma membrane It is hard to identify its certain location. Golgi apparatus : a special location in the cytoplasm between the nucleus and plasma membrane It is hard to identify its certain location. Q:fill in the blanks : 1- we call the Golgi apparatus in plant cell dictyosomes that builds cellulose and some components of cell wall (2020) 2- Golgi apparatus is clear (empty) from ribosomes (1\90) Q: Who's responsible for 1- building cellulose 2- building some components of cell wall. A:- dictyosomes 3- secretes complex sugars. A:- Golgi apparatus Q: what is the Function of dictyosomes? Ans/ builds cellulose and some components of cell wall (2020) 5 Q: what are the functions of Golgi apparatus?(1\92) Ans : 1-Builds and secretes complex sugars. 2- Secrete protein which is obtained from endoplasmic reticulum but it does not produce protein. 3- Secrete many materials like hormones and Enzymes Q:Explain the the following sentences :-Golgi apparatus can’t synthesize protein ? A:- because it doesn’t have ribosomes that builds protein in cell 3- Mitochondria :-They are spherical or filamentous structures (0.5-1)micrometer width and up to 10 micrometer length.They distribute different in different cells. mitochondria are found in eukaryotic cells, they differ in size according to the type of cells. Mitochondria are surrounded by double layer membrane The inner layer has curves and fold of different shapes and directions tops of these curves and bends are directed towards mitochondria cavity These structures are called Cristae They increase surface area of the inner layer. Q: what is the Location of cristae and its function ? Location : in the inner membrane of the double membrane in Mitochondria Function : increases the surface area for the inner layer in Mitochondria Q: explain the following sentences:-1/the presence of cristae in Mitochondria A:-Increases the surface area for the inner layer in Mitochondria 2/the Mitochondria known as house of energy in cell A:- because they are involved in producing high energy Adenosine tri -phosphate (ATP) 3/the main function of Mitochondria is cellular respiration A:- because they have respiratory enzymes. Q: what is the origin of cristae ? A:-frome the inner layer in Mitochondria 4/there is a lot of mitochondria in muscle Because muscles need a lot of energy and mitochondria provides the energy for muscles because it is cristae Q: what is the origin of cristae ? A:-frome the inner layer in Mitochondria Define \Plastids: They are cellular organelles in cytoplasm of plant cell. They have different shapes, sizes and colours. They can be oval, calyx, spiral and astral. Plastids are of three types:. a. Chromoplasts: which contain different pigments give colours to flowers and fruits b. Leucoplasts : which are centers for converting glucose sugar into polysaccharide like starch or into fats or proteins the white matter in potatoes for example results from colourless plastids and full of starch. c. Chloroplasts : They are common in plants. Chloroplast just like mitochondria is surrounded dual layer membrane Define \Thylakoid Membrane: A capsule structure formed by the inner membrane of the plastid It contains chlorophyll and enzymes which help in photosynthesis. Define \Stroma:- it is the Liquid transparent material which fills the inner space of the Chloroplasts, it contains enzymes that reduce CO2 to carbohydrates in photosynthesis. Define \thegranum:-It's a membranous structures exist in the double layer of plastids it contain chlorophyll and enzymes that help photosynthesis process Q: what’s Location of granum :- A:- in the stroma in Chromoplasts Q: Who is responsible white color of potato? A:-has a lot of Leucoplasts Q: what is The chemical structure of starch? A:-polysaccharides Explain:1- The presence of certain enzymes in chloroplasts facilitates the process of photosynthesis? A:- Because it reduces the carbon dioxide into saccharide in the photosynthesis potatoes has a white colour? A:-Because of the presence of leukoplasts and full of starch. 6 Q:(Blanks )In the membrane that surrounds the plastide 2 structure are granum and stroma. Q:-What is the location and function ? ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‬ ‫اﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺰء او اﻟﻌﻀﻮ‬ In the cytoplasm of some plants cells Give colour to fruits and flowers Chromo Plasts in fruits and flowers In the cytoplasm of some plants cells Centres for converting glucose sugar Leukoplasts like potatoes into polysaccharides like starch or into lipids and protein In the cytoplasm of some plants cells Photosynthesis Chloroplasts like leaves. On the granum or the thylakoid Absorbtion the solar energy Chlorophyll In stroma or thylakoid reduces the carbon dioxide into Enzymes in the saccharide in the photosynthesis photosynthesis In stroma in chloroplasts Has chlorophyll that Absorbtion the )1/1998granum solar energy Q: Who is responsible for 1- reduces the carbon dioxide into saccharide:- Enzymes in stoma in chloroplasts 2- Gives Color of fruits and flowers:- Chromoplast 3- Starch in potato:- Leukoplasts 4- Converting glucose into polysaccharides:- Leukoplasts 5-Converting glucose into lipids and protein:- Leukoplasts Define\ Lysosomes:- They are vesicles surrounded by mono- layer membrane It contains many lysis enzymes (over 40 enzymes)These enzymes are responsible for digestion in the cell Lysosomes are found in almost all cells especially those that have the ability for phagocytosis like neutrophils Q: Explain the following :- 1-The lysosomes has a role in the metamorphosis? (2\2015)(1\2001) A:-Because it’s process is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of the cytoplasts and finally death of the cell by a process called Autolysis for example frog larvie tail disappear when become adult frogs 2-Disappear of the Tail of frog larvae when it grows into a mature frogs?(2017)(1\1989) A:-Because it process is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of the cytoplasts and finally death of the cell by a process called Autolysis and the frog larvie tail disappear when become adult frogs. 2- The lysosomes has a role in recycling elements? (1\2015) A:-Because it process is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of the cytoplasts and finally death of the cell by a process called Autolysis. 3- Autolysis occurs to living things after its death or (the autolysis helps in recycling of elements in nature ?) (2\2022)(1\2002) (2\1988) A:- Because the process is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of the cytoplasts and finally death of the cell and the materials will return to environment... 4- The lysosomes are found in almost all cells especially those that have the ability for phagocytosis ? A:-Because the lysosomes It contains many lysis enzymes (over 40 enzymes) These enzymes are responsible for digestion in the cell 5- Lysosomes is a cleaning units in cytoplasm ?(2\2010)(2\97)(2\90) A:-Because it cleans cell cytoplasm from food particles and mitochondria pieces and micro – organisms and other impurities. 7 Define\Autolysis (1\2008):- it process is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of the cytoplasts and finally death of the cell Q:When does it occur and why :- Autolysis ? A: It occurred after the death of living organism.Because It’s process is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of the cytoplasm and finally death of the cell and the materials will return to environment. Q:Give an example of Metamorphosis? frog larvie tail disappear when become adult frogs Q:Name the process (Lysosomes release enzymes into the cell cytoplasm)(2017)? Ans:- Autolysis Q: Who is responsible for:- 1- Autolysis (3\2017):- Lysosomes Metamorphosis(3\2016) :- Lysosomes Q:compare between Lysosomes and Golgi Apparatus(2015) Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes 1- plant cell and animal cell between 1- are found in almost all cells especially those the nucleus and plasma membrane. that have the ability for phagocytosis like neutrophils 2- has a special location in the cytoplasm 2- in cytoplasm of cells and between the plasma membrane and the nucleus certain location 3:-functions 1- in the animal cell to Build 3:-functions1- It cleans cell cytoplasm from food and secrete complex sugars particles mitochondria pieces and micro – 2-Secrete protein which is obtained from organisms and other impurities. endoplasmic reticulum but it does not 2- Lysosome play a vital role In animal produce protein metamorphosis for example frog larvie tail 3-Secrete many materials like hormones disappear when become adult frogs This process and Enzymes In plant cell It builds the is done by releasing enzymes from lysosomes to cellulose and some of cell wall cell cytoplasm This process digests the contents of components the cytoplasts and finally death of the cell by a process called Autolysis This process lyses bodies of living organism after death. 3- Lysosomes destroy the cell which contain them after death of the organism. 4- They recycle elements in nature through autolysis chambers marked by smooth with three - it's a vesicles surrounded by (mono-layer) membranes 1-cisternae 2-vesicles membrane It contains many lysis enzymes (over 3-large vacuoles 40 enzymes) 5-organelle secretion 5-can do Phagocytosis 6-don't have ribosomes but itsecret 6- don't have ribosomes protein which is obtained from endoplasmic reticulum but it does not produce protein 8 Define \ cytoskeleton :- Eukaryotic cells have a distinctive system of micro flaments and tubules, which form the skeleton of the cell. These are considered as support tothe cell maintaining its form. This system is used by many cells in moving and transferring organelles inside the cell’ Define \ Microfilaments:- They are thin straight structures first observed in muscular cells they are actin filaments which contain actin protein the other type is myosin which contains myosin protein and both are Responsible for expansion and contraction of cell. Define\ Microtubules:-They are larger than micro filaments and have tubular structures consisting of protein called tubulin. Microtubules play vital role in chromosome movement during cell division. In addition they are important for cytoskeleton. Organization and transfer of materials.They are major elements in formation of cilium and flagella Microtubules which exist in animal cell cytoplasm and other primitive organisms like algae and fungi are situated near the nucleus and form the centrosomes. Define \ Centrosmes:- The centrosome has a pair of centrioles each of which is a cylinder consisting of nine triple –groups of microtubules The centrosome duplicate during cell division the two centrosome move a part to the opposites sides of the cell and connect together through spindles fibres. Although centrosomes are not found in plant cell yet there is a centre for creating microtubules and micro filaments. Q:-The centrosome has a main role in cell division ? It gets dupicate during cell division the two centrosome move a part to the opposites sides of the cell and connect together through spindles fibres and pull the chromosomes to the poles of cells Q:- Location of centrosome :- animal cells only Q:- origin of centrosome :- micro tubule microtubules microfilaments 1-exist in animal cytompasm of animal cell and other 1-observed in muscular cells primitive organisms like algea and fungi 2-Microtubules play vital role in chromosome 2-responsible for extension and movement during cell division. In addition they are contraction of the cell important for cytoskeleton. Organization and transfer of materials.They are major elements in formation of cilium and flagella and form the centrosomes 3-tubular structures 3 –they are thin straight structures 4-they are larger than microfilaments 4-they are small than microtubules 5- contain tubulin protein 5-contain actin protein and myosin protein Define:-Kinetosome:- It looks like centriole in structure. It is structure at the base of the cilium and flagellum in cells, which contain cilium, or flagella. The kinetosome has a vital role in movement of cilium and flagella; it is also called basal body. Q:what is the function and location of basal body :- Location:- at the base of the cilium or flagellum in cells. Function:- has a vital role in movement of cilium and flagella Q: Who's responsible for the movement of cilia and flagella:- basal body Q:compare between centrosome and Kinetosome :- ( basal body.) Kinetosome centrosome at the base of the cilium or flagellum in cells..in animals cells has a vital role in movement of cilium and play important role in the movement of flagella chromosomes in cells division has a pair of centrioles each of which is it don’t have centrioles but its It looks like a cylinder consisting of nine triple – groups of centriole in structure microtubules 9 Vacuoles :- Q:-who’s responsible for the water balance in protista A:-Contractile Vacuole Q:-protista has Contractile Vacuole or( Contractile Vacuole is alot in Protista)?(Explain) A:-which drain cells from surplus water and dissolved waste. Q:-Making food vacuole in Protista? It's a temporary food vacuoles formed for food digestion inside these vacuoles by secreting enzymes from lysosomes inside the vacuole. Q:-Give an Example of :- 1- special vacuole:- Contractile Vacuole 2- temporary vacuole:- food vacuole 3- Vacuole with cell sap :- vacuole in plant ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‬ ‫اﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ‬ )‫اﻟﺠﺰء (اﻟﻌﻀﻮ‬ Protista like which drain cells from surplus water and 1-Contractile Vacuole Paramecium and dissolved waste((1/1988) amoeba in Protista digest food in it through the enzymes 2-Food vacuole that.secrets by lysosomes in plant cell has a juice of different subs milt as a 3-Cellular juice solution Non living Contents of the Cell:- They are temporily contents in cytoplasm called cytoplasmic deposits. They are mainly formed by metabolite materials or piled deposits. These deposits have several forms: 1. Lipid droplets in fatty (adipose) tissue cells and liver cells. 2. carbohydrate accumulation represented by glycogen as in liver cells. 3. Proteins stored in glandular cells in the form of secretory granules, these granules are periodically released outside the cells. 4. Deposits of pigments and colourings, some cells produce pigments as in the skin cells. 5. Enzymes, hormones and some vitamins are also cytoplasmic deposits which are granular, spherical or oval. And these are materials are surrounded by membrane as in the case of neuro-secretory granules Q:-mention The characteristics of neural secretory granules? A:- spherical or oval granular , and forms and are surrounded by a membrane Nucleus :-The nucleus is the most important cell component in living organisms It is essential for life cell survival depends on exchanges between nucleus and cytoplasm the cell without nucleus lives for a short time then degenerates like adult red blood cells. The nucleus is the largest distinctive organelle inside the cell Blank :- Nucleus size depend on size of cytoplasm The nucleus consists of the following components - 1- Nuclear Membrane :- It is a thin double –layer membrane It surrounds the nucleus it has its own physical and chemical properties. It regulates exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm through micro pores that allow passage of particles this membrane has selective permeability. This membrane surrounds the nucleus in all cells except for bacteria and blue green algae (prokaryotic ) it has no nucleus but it has nuclear matter. 2- Nucleoplasm:- It is colorless gelatinous liquid fills the nucleus where the nuclear contents are distributed These contents include nucleolus and chromatin network. 3- Nucleolus:-The nucleus has one or more nucleolus. For example onion cell nucleus has four nucleoli.The nucleolus is a relatively big spherical structure inside the nucleus It consists of protein and RNA Nucleolus has vital role for formation of ribosome which is responsible for protein formation. 10 4- Chromatin Network:- is an interconnected and irregular filamentous structure. Filaments ofchromatin network appear during cell division forming a specific number of rod-like structures known as chromosomes.they carry genes which transport genetic features from one generation to another therefore chromosomes are very important because of vital role in genetics reproduction development and mutation Important information about nucleus 1- chromosomes can be seen only during cell division the number of chromosomes differs in living things2- chromosomes have fixed size and shape in living organisms 3- chromosomes length ranges from (0.2-50) micrometre, its length in humans (4- 6 ) micrometre Number of chromosomes in their somatic cells In ascarislum bricades there are 2 chromosomes only it is the least number of chromosomes among organisms. the number of chromosomes in the Spanish butterfly is 380, 12 chromosomes in home fly 26 chromosomes in frog 80 chromosomes in pigeon and 64 chromosomes in horse As for humans they have 46 chromosomes Q:- Explain these sentences :- 1- the presence of the nucleus is essential for life cell survival ? A:Because cell survival depends on exchanges between nucleus and cytoplasm. 2- chromosomes are very important?(2\2021) A :-because of it is vital role in genetics reproduction development and mutation. 3- Red blood cells live for a short time then degenerates? A. Because it loses it’s nucleus 4- The nuclei of cells vary in its shape and this is related to the shape of the cell. A: Because the shapes of the cells differ from one another according to their function , some of them are fixed in shape, and some of them are not fixed in shape. the nucleus fits in with the shape of the cell , whose shape and nature match its function. Q:-what’s chemical structure of nucleolus ? A:-protein and RNA(2000/2) (2017/‫()ت‬2\2013) (3\2016) Q:- there are cases in which the cells are dual-nucleus as in cartilage cells, liver cells and muscle cells, (2015/1 Q:- compare between ribosomes and chromosomes ?(1\2020)(2\2018) ‫ﺻﻔﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ‬ chromosomes ribosomes 1- They are found on the surfaces- of rough 1- It is located inside the nucleus endoplasmic reticulum in the eukaryote and in Location chromatid (n network( and can be seen the cytoplasm in the during cell division.prokaryotic Function 2-they carry genes which transport 2-has a main role in building protein genetic features from one generation to another. chromosomes are very important because of vital role in genetics reproduction development and mutation. number 3- a fixed number of chromosomes in 3- large in number the same kind origin 4-synthesis by.Chromatin network 4- synthesis by nuclei shape 5- irregular filamentous structure 5-.small particles Q:- what is the function of Nucleolus? It has vital role for formation of ribosome which is responsible for protein formation. Define chromosomes:- Its irregular filamentous structure has fixed number synthesis by Chromatin network they carry genes which transport genetic features from one generation to another. chromosomes are very important because of vital role in genetics reproduction development and mutation. Q:- what is the function and location of Nuclear membrane (3\2018)? Location: surrounds the nucleus in all cells except for bacteria and blue green algae (prokaryotic ) it has no nucleus but it has nuclear matter. Function: exchange of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm By containing micropores that allow passage of particles 11 Q:-Give an Example for:- 1-A living animal cell without a nucleus: A adult red blood cells (2008/1) (2/2010) (2014-2014) 2-dual nucleus cell A: Cartilage cells, liver and muscle cell. 3-A nucleus with four nucleoli? A : onion cell nuclues (1990/1) (2014/2) (2018/2018) 4-the largest distinctive organelle inside the cell ?A: The nucleus Q:- comparison between Animal and plant cells(1\2017)(2\2016)(1\2001) Character Plant Cell ‫اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﯿﺔ‬ Animal Cell ٍ‫اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﯿﻮاﻧﯿﺔ ا‬ Cell wall and A thin plasma membrane along with thick Thin plasma membrane only plasma cellulose wall consisting of lignin giving the membrane cell fixed shape Plastids There are chloroplasts associated with No plastids photosynthesis : some are leucoplasts, white plastids and colored plastids Centrioles No Centrioles with the exception of some Centrioles exist in many primitive plant cells animal cells has a role in cell division Vacuoles Vacuoles are few in plant cells large There are many vacuoles in vacuoles occupy the whole size of adult animal cell small in size spread cell in cytoplasm Q:-in the final in phase in the plant cell ,The cytoplasm is divided by forming a cellular plate and in the animal cell by Bending )3/2018()1/2010) Cell Activities Diffusion (2\2017):- is defined as movement of ions and particles in a certain medium from high concentration region to low concertation regions. Q: (explain ) coloured material spread on a short distance ? Ans/ because the distance of spreading particles is directly proportional to square root of time for spread With passage of time matter will spread all over the water. Q:- What's The importance of passing materials through membranes? A: 1- essential to maintain biological operations of the cell 2- construction of living matter in cell. Q:-Explain:- the process of exchange materials into and out of the cell from the basic cellular processes that regulate cellular functional conditions A: Because it is determines exit of waste materials and water outside the cell It is essential to maintain biological operations of the cell and construction of living. Permeability:- It is exchange of materials between the cell and its environment by aid of plasma membrane. The cell can absorb food materials in an appropriate food medium. This does not mean that food outside the cell can all be absorbed by the cell. Generally membranes are classified according to permeability into : 1. Permeable membranes : These membranes allow passage of materials regardless of their structure and size 2..Semi –permeable membranes : These membranes do not allow equal passage of solutes as level of solvents. 3. Selectivly permeable : These membranes allow selective passage of materails according to size of their particles 4. Non- permeable membranes: Like nylon. :- Q:-Explain1- The plasma membrane is selectively permeable ? A: Because it allow selective passage of material according to size of their particles. 2- the plasma membrane is semi-permeable ? A: Because it allows the passage of some small particles and prevents the passage of other larger 12 particles. Osmosis:- movement of water particle through selectively permeable membran (plasma membrane) according to variance in Concentration. Movement of water particles is done according to diffusion law because osmosis is a case of diffusion :‫ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﺗﺒﻌﺎ ً ﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰھﺎ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﺿﺤﻲ اﻟﻰ ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺔ اﻧﻮاع ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﺧﺎص ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ و ھﻲ‬ a. Isotonic Solution: whereby concentration of water outside the cell is equal to concentration of animal cell cytoplasm the cell neither loses nor gains water b. Hypotonic Solution : this solution has low concentration of non- permeable solutes compared to solutes in cytoplasm The cell gains water this leads to distention of the cell and then rapture c. Hypertonic Solution: this solution has high concentration of solute materails compared to cytoplasm thus direction of water is from cytoplasm to the outer solution this causes shrinkage of the cell. plasmolysis: (2015/2) (2015 /‫ )ن‬is the case of the cell membrane merely moves away from the cell wall this process it results from water leaving the cell to the outer (extracellular) solution which is highly concentrated compared to the concentration of dissolved substances in the cytoplasm resulting in cell contraction deplasmolysis : it is the process of returning the cell to its normal state before contraction when adding water to the solution outside the cell i.e. the reversed process of plasmolysis. Q:- When dose it occur ? and why? (plasmolysis): (96/1) (2016 / n) A: It occurs when the cell is placed in Hypertonic Solution. The reason is that water comes out from inside the cell to the outside Q:- What happens to an animal cell when it is placed in:- 1- Hypertonic Solution. Indicating the reason in both cases)1/2015( 2- Hypotonic Solution. A: 1- Caused by contraction (plasmolysis) as a result of the exit of water from the cell. 2 - leads to distention of animal cell & the rupture due to water entering it. Q:-Explain :- 1-The size of the plant cell does not change much when placed in a Hypertonic Solution compared to the animal cell? A: Because of the cellular wall present in plant cells that animal cells lack. 2- In the osmosis experiment, in the first case, the water is at one level in the funnel and the basin? A: Because the solution has a neutral concentration inside and outside the funnel, therefore, the water molecules do not gain or lose in the funnel (or the number of water particles entering the glass funnel is equal to the one outside it). 3 -occurrence of in some cells? Plasmolysis? A: Because of the high concentration of the solution outside the cells compared to its concentration inside the cells, the water comes out of the cells outside and the plasma membrane shrinks. This is known as the plasmolysis. 4 -In the osmosis experiment in the second case (when adding a sugar solution) we notice the high level of water in the glass funnel? A: This is because the solution in the glass funnel has become highly concentrated compared to the concentration of the glass basin. Therefore, the movement of water particles is towards the glass funnel more than it exits from the funnel to the basin, so the water in the glass funnel rises more than the glass basin. 5 -The animal cell shrinks when placed in a highly concentrated solution? A: Because of the high concentration of the solution outside the cells compared to its concentration inside the cells, the water comes out of the cells outside and the plasma membrane shrinks. This is known as the plasmolysis. 13 6- The presence of nutrients outside the cell does not necessarily mean that the cell can exploit it? A: 1- These substances must pass through the plasma membrane first. 2- It must be characterized by its solubility in water to a certain degree in order to pass through this membrane. Active Transport :- Cells, sometimes, absorb materials from the outside environment, although, the concentration of these materials inside the cells is higher than outside. To perform this process, there must be carriers in cell membrane. These carriers can move inside and outside the cell. The carrier integrates with other material (particle or ion) needed by the cell.This carrier moves to the inner surface of the membrane. The carried material separates inside cytoplasm. This process requires energy, which is supplied by ATP. Q:-Explain :- : The cells that perform the active transport are characterized by containing mitochondria (1/96 (2/99) (1/4/2004) (1/6) A: Because the active transport requires energy, it is provided by mitochondria. Q: the cause of plasmolysis ? (2/99) (2/2007) A: The cell lost its water due to placing it in a highly concentrated solution. Q: What results from dissolving red blood cells in distilled water? (2006/1) A: distention of the cell. Q: What results from exposure of red blood cells to air? A: Cell contraction (Plasmolysis) Q: the passage of hydrocarbons and alcohols through the plasma membrane. A: Because it is soluble in lipids, the plasma membrane is chemically synthesized from phospholipids, so it passes easily through the plasma membrane. Q: What is the location and function of the carrier? (1991/2) (2010/2) (2017/2) (2018/1) A: Location: the cell membrane (plasma membrane) in cells that perform active transport (2015 / Function: The carrier integrates with other material (particle or ion) needed by the cell.This carrier moves to the inner surface of the membrane. The carried material separates inside cytoplasm. This process requires energy, which is supplied by ATP. Q:-Compare between permeability and active transport(2002/1) (2004/2)(2017/‫)ن‬ activ transport permeability 1-Transfer of materials from low 1-The transition of materials from high concentrations to high concentrations concentration to low concentration 2-use energy 2-don't use energy. 3-need carriers substances 3-don't need. 4-occurs in active cells. 4- occur in normal cell. Q:- Cells, sometimes, absorb materials from the outside environment, although, the concentration of these materials inside the cells is higher than outside? (93/1) A:- To perform this process,there must be carriers in cell membrane. These carriers can move inside and outside the cell. The carrier integrates with other material (particle or ion) needed by the cell. This carrier moves to the inner surface of the membrane. The carried material separates inside cytoplasm. This process requires energy, which is supplied by ATP Phagocytosis:- is cellular eating; it is a common way of eating (nutrition) among protista like amoeba. It is also used by white blood cells in devouring remaining cells and germs in the blood. This process is done when cell membrane is pouch-like that surrounds the solid matter, then this pouch separates from cell surface and moves inside cytoplasm. The contents are digested by the enzymes secreted by lysosomes in the cytoplasm. Pinocytosis :-It is similar to phagocytosis When a liquid material is taken there will be a small hole in cell membrane this hole surrounds the liquid matter and becomes inside pinocytic vesicle the vesicle separates from cell membrane and moves inside the cell. Exocytosis :-This term is used to describe the releasing of some materials outside the cell. This process takes place in various cells to get rid of undigested left overs from phagocytosis, or to secrete some hormones. 14 Liq uid material Q:-Functions of exocytosis? A:- to get rid of undigested food from phagocytosis, B:- secrete hormones. Difference between :-Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis and exocytosis Exocytosis Pinocytosis Phagocytosis 1- Create a vesicle around the 1- occur by forming a small 1- It occurs by forming a cell material to be released invagination from the cell membrane that encloses the solid membrane to become a vesicle matter 2- The materials are released 2 -The vesicle separates into the 2- The pouch is separated, left to outward and these materials cytoplasm the cytoplasm and its contents are either undigested or digested by enzyme particles secretory substances such as hormones Cell metabolism:- (2\2019)(3\2020) is represent by all of chemical changes which take place with help of enzymes these changes are catabolism which means degradation of matrials and anabolism which means building new things Q:- Cellular metabolism includes the Catabolism and the Anabolism blanks)(‫\ت‬2013) (‫\خ‬2015)(‫\ت‬2016)(3\2016)(‫\ن‬2016)(2022) Q: compare between Anabolism and catsbolism Anabolism Catsbolism 1- Inside the Chloroplasts 1- Inside the mitochondria. 2- new products 2- Through which the materials are broken down. 3- It consumes energy 3- Produce energy 4- It occurs in the cells of green plants and 4- It occurs in animal and plant organisms, some so types of bacteria and algae where glucose is the glucose molecule is destroyed, for built from carbon dioxide and water using example, by breathing, producing energy sunlight energy. that the organism use in many of its actions. 5- Enzymes are involved in it 5- Enzymes are involved in it 6- It releases oxygen as a by-product. 6- need oxygen. Respiration:- Glucose is the primary respiratory material. it undergoes aseries of reactions to transform into two molecules of pyruvic Acid during a process called glycolysis this processes performed in cell cytoplasm because there are enzymes There are two types of respiration : Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration 1-Aerobic Respiration: It includes a. Alcoholic Fermentation : It takes place in yeast and green plants due to lack or absence of O2 and in some types of bacteria the pyruvic acid is oxidized by taking CO2 molecule and then reduced by hydrogen from glycolysis turning into ethanol alcohol as in the following equation: 15 b. Lactic acid fermentation :- It happens in muscles and kinds of bacteria (lactic acid bacteria ) during which the pyruvic acid resulting from glycolysis reduced by means of hydrogen also resulting from glycolysis as a result it change to lactic acid as in the following equation. Q:-Prove that a single gram fraction of glucose sugar completely oxidized in aerobic38ATP?(1\2005) (1\2011) (1\2014) (1\2019) Q:-Chemical structure of pyruvic acid?‫ت‬/2017) (1/2010) Q: Calculate the resulting (H2) molecules within the process 1- Aerobic Respiration. A: 24H 2- glycolysis. A: 4 H 3-Kreb’s cycle. A: 8 H 16 Q: Fill the following blanks : 1-The energy resulting from glycolysis is equal to 2ATP, and the Krebs cycle is equal to 12ATP (2015) (2016) (2019 ) 2-In aerobic respiration, acetyl Co-A enters a series of changes within the mitochondria within the Krebs cycle. (1987/1) 3-Output from the glycolysis process two bolds of Pyruvic acid and two molecules of 2ATP (3/17/2017) Explain :-Molecules of ATP are consumed in the glycolysis process? (2002/1) (2015/1) A: The first molecule is consumed by activating the glucose molecule with phosphorylation and turns into glucose -6- phosphate, and the second molecule is consumed in activating the single phosphate fructose with the phosphorylation of a second phosphorylate, and then it turns into fructose pi phosphate Q: Compare the fate of hydrogen resulting from glycolysis in alcoholic fermentation Formla. Giving chemical and lactic fermentation equation Q: What is the fate of hydrogen resulting from glycolysis in fermentation processes? ( 2/2018) (1/2016) A: 1 In alcoholic fermentation hydrogen is reduced, acetaldehyde to ethyl alcohol 2-In lactic fermentation, hydrogen reduces pyruvic acid directly to lactic acid Q: What are the similarities between alcoholic fermentation and lactic fermentation. 1-Both release 2ATP energy. Both occur in the cytoplasm of the cell in the absence of oxygen. 2 -Both of them begin the reaction from the pyruvic acid Definition of glycolysis (1988/2) (1992/1):- It is the process of converting a glucose molecule (which is the main respiration material ) into two molecules of pyruvic acid after a series of reactions taking place in the cell's cytoplasm. Define key to the Kreb’s cycle (2009) :- It is the acetyl co-A compound that enters the role of Kreb’s cycle (which is the key to it) in a series of reactions leading to the release energy (12ATP) in each cycle.. Q: comparison between alcoholic fermentation and lactic fermentation ‫ﺻﻔﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ‬ Alcoholic fermentation Lactic fermentation ‫ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺣﺪوث اﻟﺘﺨﻤﺮ‬ 1- It takes place in yeast and green 1- It happens in muscles and kinds of plants due to lack or absence of O2 , bacteria and in some types of bacteria. ‫اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﻸوﻛﺴﺠﯿﻦ‬ 2- it is done in the absence or lack of 2- it is done in the absence or lack of oxygen oxygen ‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻻﺧﺘﺰال او‬ 3-The pyruvic acid is oxidized by 3- the pyruvic acid resulting from ‫اﻻﻛﺴﺪة‬ taking CO2 molecule, and then glycolysis is reduced by means of reduced by hydrogen from glycolysis, hydrogen also resulting from glycolysis; turning it into ethyl alcohol, as a result it change to lactic acid ‫اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ‬ 4- The final product is ethyl alcohol, 2 4- The final product is lactic acid and 2 ATP, and CO2 ATP. ‫ﺗﺤﺮر‬CO2 5- Co2 released ‫ ﯾﺘﺤﺮر‬CO2 5-Co2 is not released. ‫ ﻻ ﯾﺘﺤﺮر‬CO2 ‫ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺣﺪوث ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺗﮫ‬ 6- Its reactions occur in cytoplasm 6- Its reactions occur in cytoplasm and and outside the mitochondria. outside the mitochondria. 17 Q: What is the origin of the following ( who is responsible for the following) 1-lactic acid (1/2008) :- A: From: reduction of pyruvic acid by 2 (2H) resulting from glycolysis. 2-Acetaldehyde(2/2010) :-A: From the oxidation of the pyruvic acid (the taking of CO2) from the pyruvic acid 3- citric acid A:- union of with oxaloacetic acid with acetyl co-A in a Krebs cycle. 4-: pyruvic acid A:- from the glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate 5-Acetylcholine A: from of pyruvic acid after its oxidation Q:- the process of Reduction of carbon dioxide a anabolic process for organic materials ? Explain A: Because plants absorb CO2 in the presence of water and by using solar energy to form carbohydrate materials, this reaction is called CO2 reduction, and this reaction leads to the formation of all the complex organic molecules in the cells. Cell division :- complex operations which multiply (increase)the genetic matter qualitatively and ensure homogenous distribution among the resulting cells there are three types of cell divisions: Amitosis :- cells divide without clear nuclear or cytoplasmic changes. The nucleus or nuclear matter and cytoplasm constricted and then split to form two cells, each of which contain part of the original nucleus or the nuclear matter and part of the original cytoplasm. This type of division occurs in bacteria and blue green algae. Mitosis (3\2020)(‫ت‬2020)‫\ن‬2017(:-is defined as cell division in which both of new cells have the same number and quality of chromosomes of the mother cell Q:What are the change that occurs in interphase? Define interphase (2\2021):- the cell goes through this phase before cell division It is noted that during this phase the nucleus is relatively large compared to nuclei in divided cells. In addition during this phase the cell creates huge molecules of nuclear acids and proteins as preparation for division this phase is characterized by doubling DNA the centrosome also during this phase. Phase one : prophase(Exlain the prophase of the mitosis division )(3\2017)(1\2021)(‫\ت‬2022) 1- The chromatin network is marked number of chromosomes which looks thick It is divided into two sister chromatids. 2- These sister chromatids are connected to each at their centromeres they form the subsequent chromosomes. 3- The centrosomes that are formed in the interphase, directed in opposite directions toward to the cell poles. 4- The centrosomes extend astral filaments (aster). 5- Spindle filaments are formed between them. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear at a later stage of this phase. Phase two :Metaphase:- during this phase occur the following(‫\خ‬2016) 1- Chromosomes shrink and thicken at this phase. 2-They are located at equator line of cell 3- Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres by their centromere. Phase Three : Anaphase:- during this phase occur the following(‫\ت‬2016)(1\2004) 1- At this phase sister chromatids which formed in interphase separate from each other and move in opposite directions of the cell 2- Mechanism of chromosome movement isnt fully uncovered however there are explanation of that A-Spindle filaments are thought to shrink when there is ATP, they pull chromo some to ward the poles. B-Spindle fibres form a path so that chromosomes slide on these threads toward the poles. Phase Four : Telophase:- during this phase occur the following(‫\خ‬2\2018) 1- The final phase starts when the chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell 2- the chromosomes back to their microfilaments shape they appear as chromatin network 3- forming nucleus 4- forming nuclear membrane and the spindle disappears and the division of the nucleus end 5- Nucleus division is followed by cytokinesis  time for cell division varies according to type of cell tissue and age of the organism Furthermore  It is found that division phases in human cells prophase lasts(30-60) minutes metaphase (2-6) minutes anaphase (3-15) minutes while telophase lasts (30-60) minutes It is also noted that division time of neuron lasts (30) minutes during embryonic phases 18 Q:- division becomes rare in the cells of nervous tissue after puberty? A: because adult neurons are specialized in definitive way Q:The mechanism of chromosomes movement to the cell poles during mitosis ? Answer above Q:what is the function of spindle filaments ? Ans: They pull chromosome toward the poles Q: Compare between cytokinesis plant cell and Animal cell. (2014/2) )(2019/‫?)ت‬ Plant Cell Animal cell 1- When the plant cell divides, a cell plate forms 1- When the animal cell divides, the cell in the area of the cell’s equator, which grows membrane gets excreted near the region of the from the center to the outside where it forms cell’s equator, and the cytoplasm is reduced the cell protoplast. and extends from the outside to the inside. 2- Then each new cell starts forming its own cell 2- this curve and bend increases gradually until wall from its side, this process results two new the cell divides into two new cells, each cells containing a nucleus. Q: compare between centrosome and centromere ?(1\2017) centrosome centromere 1.found in the cytoplasm of animal cell and 1-found in the chromosome some early organisms such as algae andfungi near the nucleus 2- the centrosome duplicates during the cell 2- the centromere connect together the two division ,the two centrosomes move apart to the sisters chromatids opposite sides of the cell and connect together by spindle fibres Q:Compare between the telophase and prophase?(1\2017)(3\2016)(1\2014) Telophase Prophase 1- The telophase begins when chromosomes have 1- This phase starts after the end of the reached the opposite poles of the cell. prophase. 2- The chromosomes back to their previous micro 2- The chromatic network is distinguished by a filamentous shape, as they appear as chromatin number of thick chromosomes network (i.e. the chromatic network is formed). 3-The new nucleus or nuclei are formed, and the nuclear membrane is formed. 3- The nucleus and nuclear membrane 4- The spindle and the aster disappear in this disappear at a later stage in this phase. phase. 4- The astral filaments (the aster) extend from 5- The complete nucleus division follows the the two central particles and form the spindle cytoplasmic division. filaments 6- The result is two new nuclei cells.. 5- No nuclear or cytoplasmic division occurs in this phase 6- The result is one cell.  Meiosis define :- aims at maintaining a fixed number of chromosomes for various speciesd during succession of generations where gametes eggs ,sperms in animals are created and spores in plants. Q:- Explain: The occurrence of meiosis? A: In order to maintain a fixed number of chromosomes for various species during the succession of generation through which gametes are formed. 1- Leptotene : What are the changes in chromosomes in the lephontend (2\2001)(2/2021) (1\1993) Chromosomes at this stage are single, long and thin filaments like beads. They look like necklace, the DNA (genetic material) doubled in each chromosome. 2- Zygotene : during this phase occur the following(1\2019) Homologues chromosomes align and double. then they bend on each other this process is called Synapsis the doubled (chromosome) are called bivalent this process is distinctive in meiosis because it does not occur in mitosis 19 3- Pachytene : during this phase occur the following(1\2018) chromosome condense thicken and shorten Each chromosome double into two clear chromatids attached to each other via their centromeres Each two chromatids of the Same chromosomes are celled (sister chromatids) At this stage each pair of homologues chromosomes from a bundle of four chromatids this bundle is celled Tetrad for example human cell at this round has 23 tetrads and 92 chromatids total In addition at this stage three is exchange of genes locations between identical chromosomes this process is called Crossing Over. 4- Diplotene : during this phase occur the following :- At this round homologues chromosomes keep a way from each other non-sister chromatids remain attached by one or more points, these connection points are called chiasmata Number and location of chiasmata differ from chromosomes to another and from one cell to another Non – sister chromatids are exchanged at each chiasmata point. 5- Diakinesis :-what are the changes that occur in Diakinesis round(3\2015)? Explain Diakinesis round in meiosis division(‫\ت‬2015) ? this is the last stage of the prophase at which chromosomes (chromatids of homologues chromosomes ) shorten and thicken more the nucleolus and the nuclear membrane gradually degraded locations of chiasmata move to the far end chromosomes thus chiasmata number decrease. Q:-When does it occur ? And why? (96/1) the crossing over Occur in the pachytene stage of the first pro phase of meiosis The reason is......because the chromatids are in the shape of a quadruple bundle (homologous chromosomes) and have connection chiasmata points which are known in the later phase (Diplotene) Q:-What is a function: meiosis? A: Maintaining a fixed number of chromosomes for individuals ofvarious species, during the process of generational succession through which gametes are formed Q:-Explain : number of chaismata decrease in Diakinesis (3/2013) A: Because the chaismata move to the far end of chromosomes thus chiasmata decrease. 1/2018()3/2013( Chiasmata define :- connection points of nonsister chromatids at one point or more, it occurs at diplotene round of the first prophase of the first meiosis. Crossing over define : It is a feature of pachytene. round of the first prophase in which the exchange of gene location occurs.between identical chromosomes.. Blank :Stem division occurs in all organism except for the prokaryotic group. (1987/1) Q: What is the purpose of meiosis? And when will it happen? (1988/1) (3/14) A: It aims: to maintain a fixed number of chromosomes for individuals of different types of organisms. It occurs: During the process of forming gametes such as eggs and sperm in animals, spores and pollen in plants Q: what is the origin of spindle filaments ? A: centrosome Q: Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis (2\2022)(3\2016)(2\2013)(2\2005)(1\95) Mitosis Meiosis 1-One division 1-Two divisions 2-Two identical cells form by each division 2-Four non identical cells form by each division 3 -Genetically identical cells formed 3-Genetically different cells formed 4-Number of chromosomes in both new cell is 4-Number of chromosomes in new cells is half similar to mother cell those in mother cell 5-in somatic cells 5-in Reproductive cells 6-Division occurs during cell life cycle 6-Division occurs after sexual maturity only continuously 7-This division is used for growth repair cells 7-Division is used in sexual (reproduction )and and asexual (reproduction ). having new members of that species 20 Q: Comparison between The second prophase and The first prophase of the meiosis division ? THE SECOND PRO PHASE THE FIRST PRO PHASE 1- The cell entering the second meiosis is (n) 1- The cell that enters the first meiosis is (2 n). 2- It is not preceded by interphase. 2- It is preceded by interphase. 3- synapsis does not occur 3- The synapsis and crossing over are occur. 4- Chromatids may differ in their composition 4- Chromatids entering the first prophaseare from the first prophase as a result of the crossing similar in composition to the parent cell. over process that occurred in the pachytene phase of the first preliminary phase. Q: Compare between metaphase2 and metaphase1 of the meiosis division?(2\2021) Metaphase 2 Metaphase 1 1 1-the chromosomes are located at the equator 1-At this phase, homologous chromosomes line of the cell; it is attached by spindle fibres align at cell equator line in the form of through their centromeres binary chromosomal groups 2 2-Occurs in the secound meiosis division 2-Occurs in the first meiosis division 3 3-Chromosomes are made of two chromatids 3-Chromosomes are Made of four chromatids Q: Compare between telophase and telophasel of the meiosis division? Telophase Telophase1 1-chromosomes gather at cell poles, they 1-New chromosomes gather at the poles get longer and thinner, chromatin matter appear as fine threads (micro filaments). 2-the nuclear membrane and nucleoli group 2-The nucleolus and nuclear membrane, to form two new nuclei from one original which surround chromosome groups, start nucleus forming; this group is haploid 3-In some plant cells the cell plate is formed 3-Nuclear division is followed by cytokinesis, as in through the spindle and then becomes the case of mitosis middle lamella then cell wall As for animal. cells cytoplasmic membrane is generated between the two new nuclei to separate them 4-the resulet is four cells with 4-the two new cells are formed. They are ready for haploid chromosomes group the second meiosis. Q:In which phase or Round occur the following Operation Phase or round 1-DoublingDNA 2-Creating of nuclear acid Interphase (doubling) 3-Creating protein 4-Doubling centrosome 5-marking number of chromosome 6-appearing of chromatid Prophase 7-creating astra 8-nucleolus disappear 9- forming spindle filaments 10- nuclear membrane disappear 11- centrosomes movement to the cell poles 12- chromosomes locate at the equator line of the cell Metaphase 13- chromosomes locate at the equator line of spindle 14-sister chromatids moving toward cell poles Anaphase 21 15-forming chromatin network Telophase 16-forming nucleolus 17-forming nuclear membrane 18-cytokinesis 19-spindle disappear 20-cellular plate 21-synapsis 22- bivalent Zygote round of prophase1 of meiosis 23-crossing over 24-tetrad Pachytene round of prophase1 of meiosis 25-chiasmata Diplotne round of prophase1 of meiosis 26-homologues chromosomes keep away Diplotne round of prophase1 of meiosis from each other non-sister chromatids remain attached 27- decreasing number of chiasmata Diakinesis round of prophase1 of meiosis 28- Gadually fading of nucleolus and Diakinesis round of prophase1 of meiosis nuclear membrane 30-haploid At the end of first meiosis division 31-spindle appear 32- appearing of Metaphase 1 of meiosis centromeres 33-sparation homologues chromosomes Anaphase 1of meiosis division 34-chromatids separate Anaphase 2 of meiosis division 35- Exchanging of genes locations 36- Doubling chromosomes in to 2 Pachytene round of prophase1 of meiosis chromatids 37-forming gametes At the end of telophase 2 meiosis division 38- half number of the chromosomes At the end of meiosis division Function Location plays a role in the movement of are found in cells Spindle the chromosomes toward the poles during filaments of the cell as they divide division and extend between the two centrosome exchanges the half-chromatid non-sister chiasmata pieces in each cross chromatids zone connect two chromatids to form a in the chromosome centromere chromosome Chromosome production in the nuclear The plasma. chromatin site The function is essential to the in cells cytoplasm. The nucleus survival of the cell and transmits the genetic traits. 22 CHAPTER –2 Introduction Define tissue (2019/3) :- a group of similar cells which are all specialized to perform a certain function in addition to certain cellular resultant substances. The study of tissue is known as histology Unicellular Organisms :- the organisms contain only one cell such as bacteria, certain types of algae and fungi, Ameba, Euglena and some other types. multicellular Organisms :- The bodies of some other types of organisms consist of many specialized cells; which function connectively in the form of functional tissues within the organs. Plant tissue is a group of cells that vary in shape and size but are connected to each other to perform certain function. the early plants:- consists of one cell only as in some types of Unicellular algae. This cell has the capability of performing various basic functions, such as nutrition, reproduction, tc. Formation and Distribution of Plant Tissues: Intercalary Meristematic Tissues:-exist in the body structure of the plant such as at the bases and top points of nods and at the base of the leaves. Q : What is the origin of each of the following ? 1- plants tissue 2- Apical Meristematic Tissues 3- Intercalary Meristematic Tissues A:from the cells or the Meristematic tissue. 4 - Lateral Meristematic Tissues Q:explain the Meristematic tissue does not usually transform entirely ? A: Because the meristematic part of this tissue , stays for regeneration. Classification of Plant Tissues Tissue Location Function Meristematic Plant parts of high cellular division Cell division and plant growth tissue Roots, stems and leaves in the form Forming internal tissue masses in roots, Ground Tissue of the cortex, pith and pith ray stems and leaves Forming the dermis which has many functions like providing plant Epidermis Different parts of the plant protection, exchange of gasses and water absorption. Including phloem and xylem tissues. Different parts of the plant which Their basic functions are to transport Vascular Tissue contain xylem and phloem water and nutrients, storage and support Define : Meristematic Tissues :- The undifferentiated cells of this tissue are characterized by their ability to divide actively and rapidly. This tissue occurs in the plant parts where growth takes place. This growing process leads to elongation roots and stems , buds growth ,Giving thickness to roots and stems. 23 Table (2-2) illustrates the three types of tissues meristematic with their location and function Tissue Location Function Apical It found in the tips of the roots It gives growth in the tips of Meristematc and stems of the plant the roots and stems of the Tissue plant Lateral It is found in the parts of the The secondary growth and Meristematic plants which are remote from the thickness in plants. The Tissue growing tips, i.e. the lateral side vascular cambium produces the of the plant extending parallel to secondary phloem and xylem. the outer periderm of the plant The cork cambium produces body. It consists of Vascular the periderm Cambium and cork cambium. Intercalary It is found between the It allows elongation in the nodes Meristematic permanent tissues of the plant of the plant. In grasses, it is Tissue and is far from the growing tips as responsible for the rapid in the internodes of many regrowth in the mature leaves monocotyledon plants. Q:who is responsible for each of the following or ( what is the origin of each of the following Section Responsible for it Secondary xylem (1/90) (95/1) Secondary phleom Vascular cambium (93/1) Epidermis Cork cambium Growth in the tips of the root and stem Apical Meristematic tissue Rapid regrowth in the mature leaves Intercalar Meristematic tissue Elongation of the roots and stems. Apical Meristematic tissue Bud growth. Thicken to roots and stem. Meristematic tissue Q:-What is the type of tissue in the following ? 1-nodes (2/2014) (2/2015) A: Intercalar Meristematic tissue 2-The tips of the roots and stems of the plant (2013\‫() ت‬2019\ ‫ )خ‬A: Apical Meristematic tissue -Lateral meristematic tissue includes the tissue of the vascular cambium and the corkium cambium Q:Explain the following scientific facts 1-Why is the mature leaves long? A: The result of Intercalary Meristematic tissue activity as it is responsible for the rapid regrowth of mature leaves Ground Tissue :-It is the tissue in which the cells differentiate to develop the permanent tissues in the plant body. It forms internal tissue masses in the roots, stems and leaves in the form of cortex, pith and pith rays. The permanent tissues in the plant body differentiate to the following types: a-Parenchyma b- Collenchyma c- Sclerenchyma Sclerenchyma:- There are two types of sclerenchyma cell : a- Fibres The cells of this type are long and cylindrical. They found individually or in bundles in the parts of the plant body which need support. b- Sclereids The cells are relatively short. They occur in some kinds of fruits such as pears and quinces. Q: 24 What is the type of tissue of each of the following : 1- pears (2\2021) (2\2020):- A: Sclerenchyma tissue (Sclereids) 2- cortex (1\2015)(1\95) :-A: Ground tissue 3- pith rays (2\2015) :- A: Ground tissue 4- Sclereids(‫\ت‬1\2015):- A: Sclerenchyma tissue 5- in the roots and stems(‫\ت‬2013):- :-A: Ground tissue Q :Explain the following sentences:- 1- the tissue cells of the Parenchyma make food or (photosynthesis) A: Because it may contain chloroplasts,which is responsible process of making food. 2- Often the cells of the parenchyma tissue are spherical or polygonal? ( ‫ت‬/2022) A: Because of the pressure from neighboring cells. 3- The presence of collenchyma tissue in the stems of herbal plants (1/2002) (‫\خ‬2\2015) A: Because the function of the Collenchyma tissue is to provide support to the tissues in it. 4- The strength and hardness of herbal stems (1998/1) A: This is because of the presence of the Collenchyma tissue. 5- the plant fibers parts is strong and durable ? (2007/1) A: Because the fibers are long and cylindrical. Sclerenchyma tissue cells are dead cells? A: Because it contains or saturates it with lignine. 6- The function of Sclerenchyma tissue is provide structural support? A: Because the sclerenchyme tissue contains fibers that are long and cylindrical they found individually or in bundles in the parts of the plant body which need stuctural support. 7- The Collenchyma tissue Function is providing Support and strength (2/2022) A: As a result of the thick walls of the cells and their distribution assist the tissue to do these function 8- Some plants contain fibers in bundles? A: Because these parts of the plants need strengthening. 9- The Parenchyma is responsible for the ventilation process? A: Because it contains intercellular spaces that enable the Parenchyma tissue to perform the ventilation process. Q: Sclerenchyma tissue includes two types of cells, fibers and Sclereids (2/2014).(‫\ت‬2017)(‫\ت‬2020)(‫\ت‬2023) Q: What is the origin of the following:-` 1 - inner tissue masses in leaves A: The ground tissue. 3- pith rays (87/1) (88/1) (2009/1) (2/2010) (97/1) (2015/2) (89/1) A: The ground tissue. Q: Compare the Collenchyma tissue and Sclerenchyma and the Parenchyma tissue? Sclerenchymal tissue Collenchyma tissue Parenchyma tissue dead cells Its cells are alive 1- Its cells are alive The walls of its cells covered with Its cell walls are irregularly 2-The walls of its cells are thin think cell wall closed Its cells differ in shape, some are Its cells are elongated 3 - Its cells are long, and some are short spherical or polygonal There are no inter cellular apaces There are no inter cellular 4- There are between cell them between cell apaces between cell intercellular spaces. It does not contain chlorinemic It does not contain chlorinemic 5- Some of them contain chloroplasts cells cells and are called chlorenchyma cells The most important function of The most important function of 6- Its most important function is provide structural supports. support and strengthening ventilation, storage ,and delivery of nutrients Its cells are of two types: fiber Its cells are one of a type. 7 - Its cells are one of type and Sclereids (stone) cells. 25 Q :What’s the function and location? 1- Collenchyma tissue? A: Location: It is found in woody parts of plants, as well as in mature organs of the herbal plants. Function: support and strength. 1- Parenchyma tissue (2015 )Location: in the roots, stems and leaves Function: Ventilation storage and delivery of nutrients. If it contains chloroplast, it performs photosynthesis. Q:What is the function of the following ? 1- The Parenchyma tissue (98/2) (2007/2) (2013/2013) A: Ventilation, storage and delivery of nutrients, and if it contains chloroplast, it performs photosynthesis. 2- Sclerenchyma tissue (2003/1) (2006/1) (2013/2013) (2015 /n) A: Support and strength. 3- The Collenchyma tissue (2014 / n) (88/2) A: Support and strength. Q:Explain the nature of the fiber cells? (2/1998) A: the fibers are long and cylindrical. They found individually or in bundles in the parts of the plant body which need support. Epidermis:- It is the tissue that covers the plant body and forms the permanent dermal tissue. The epidermis is a single-layered group of thickened cells that covers the primary body of the plant. The dermal cells are flat and tightly linked to each other. There are no intercellular spaces among the dermal cells. The epidermis serves many functions; it protects the plant body and regulates gas exchange (by pairs of guarding cells) and water absorption. Q:What is the characteristics of the epidermis tissue? A: Answer above Vascular Tissue :-THE Vascular Tissue includes Xylem tissue and phloem tissue Table Types of Tissues and Cells in Plant Body(2016\2) Tissue ‫اﻟﻨﺴﯿﺞ‬ Cell ‫اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ‬ Functions ‫اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ‬ Meristematic Undifferentiated cells Producing new cells to increase the Tiessue thickness and lenght of the plant Ground Tissue Parenchyma cells Photosynthesis, breathing, storage, flexible Collenchyma cells support and inflexible support Sclerenchyma cells Epidermis Epidermal cells Protection, regulation the exchange of gasses in stems leaves and absorption in of water and salts in roots. Vascular Tissue Xylem Vessels Tracheids Transportings water and minerals Storage Xylem Phloem Xylem Parenchyma Fibres Structural support Sieve Tubes Companion Transporting the organic particales Cells Phloem Fibres throughout the plant body Transporting Phloem Parenchyma carbohydrates from to the Sieve tubes. Structural support.)‫خ‬/2016( Storage Q:( blank)The vascular tissue includes xylem tissue and phloem tissue.(2016/2) Sieve tubes location and function: (2017 / n) A: Location: With in the phloem tissue. Function: transportation of organic particles throughout the plant body Sieve tubes location and function: (2017 / n) A: Location: With in the phloem tissue. Function: transportation of organic particles throughout the plant body Q:How do you distinguish between vessels and tracheids ? A: tracheid’s are characterized by their pointed at the endings. Q:What is the function of vascular tissue? (3/3/2013) A: transporting water and nutrients throughout the body of the plant in addition to structural support. 26 Q:What is the origin of Xylem Tissue? A: From rectangular meristematic cells. Q:What component does most vascular plants have? A: The presence of vascular tissue. Q:Explain the following: 1- presence of Companion cells in the phloem tissue A: In order to transfer carbohydrates to and from the sieve tubes and thus contribute to the process of transporting nutrients produced by leaves to the rest of plant. 2- Xylem performs a mechanical function in addition to the main function (transportation) (1/88)? A: Because it contains fibers whose function is mechanical, that is, to provide support and structural support. Q:Compare between Ground tissue and epidermial tissue? (1\2021))3/2014( epidermis tissue Ground tissue Location: different parts of the plant. Location: roots, stems, and leaves in the form of the cortex , pith & pith rays. Function: forming the dermis which has many Function: forming internal tissu masses in roots , function like providing plant Protection, stems and leaves. exchange of gasses and water absorption. Q:Compare between Vascular tissue and Meristematic tissue?)‫خ‬/2017( Vascular tissue Meristematic tissue Location: Different parts of the plant which Location: plant parts of high cellular contain xylem and phloem. division. Function: Including phloem and xylem tissues. Function: cell division and plant growth. Their basic function are to transport water and nutrients , storage and support. Q:Compare between the Xylem Tissue and the Phloem Tissue (3\2020)(‫\ت‬2022) Tissue Phloem Tissue Xylem 1- The tissue of the phloem consists of 1 - The Xylem texture consists of: a – a – sieve tubes, Xylem vessels , b - Companion cells, b-tracheids c – phloem fibers. c- Xylem fibers, and d – phloem parenchyma. d- Xylem parenchyma 2 - The function of sieve tubes and Companion 2- The function of vessels and cells the transporting of nutrients produced by tracheid’s is to transport water and the leaves. minerals. 3- The function of fibers is structural 2- The function of fibers is support. structural support. 4- There is no thickening of the sieve tubes or 4- Xylem vessels are distinguished by others. several types, which differ according to the thickening method. 27 Animal Tissue animal tissues are composed of a group of identical cells which are specialized in serving certain function. Epithelial Tissues:- Epithelial tissue is the tissue that covers the surface of the organism that comes in contact with the external environment and lines the body cavities.Epithelial tissue forms the glands. It has the following distinctive features: 1- Epithelial tissue is represented by continuous sheets of cells lined up in one raw or more. 2- All epithelial cells rest on basement membrane. 3- Epithelial cells are seperated by little intercellular space and almost have no intercellular substance. The cells endings are attached to each other at many locations by “Cell junctions” (plasmic junctions). Q:Fill the blank :- 1- The amount of the material between the cellular varies from tissue to another.the amount of the material between the cellular varies fromtissue to another in terms of their chemical compostion 2- Epithelial tissue is classified depending on the number of cell layers to a Simple Epithelial Tissue and Stratified Epithelial Tissue(3\2020) Q:What is the function of plasma conjunction ?A:the cells attached to each other in epithelial tissue Q:Enumerat Pseudo- stratified Simple Columnar Simple Cubic simple e the types of Columnar Epithelial epithelial tissue epithelial Squamous epithelial tissue epithelial tissue Tissue tissue location This tissue is found in This tissue is It is found in the In the lining of ‫ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‬the endotracheal found in the tubules of the blood vessels and lining (92/1) lining of the kidney and in body cavities (2017/2017), and in intestine (2016 / some glands such Vessels, lung the lining of the large v) and some as (salivary vesicales, and ducts of the salivary Malbighi particles. glands. glands glands) ‫ اﻟﻮﻇﯿﻔﺔ‬Protection and Protection, Excretion and duiffusion and excretion secretion and absorption filtration absorption ‫ ﺷﻜﻞ‬Its cells are made up of Its cells are long Its cells are cubic Cell are flattened ‫ اﻟﺨﺎﻟﯿﺎ‬more than one columns and and appear and polygonal type of cell, so they appear quadrangular in differ in their shapes rectangular in its their sections sections ‫ وﺻﻒ‬The cells’ nuclei are The nucleus oval Large spherical Central flat nucleus ‫ اﻟﻨﻮاة‬located at different shap and central nucleus levels take avery close location to the basement Q:Explain: 1-The tracheal tissue lining is called Pseudo-stratified tissue (87/1) (2007/1) (2017 / n). Or the name of Pseudo stratified columnar tissue? (2014 / n) A. Because The cells’ nuclei are located at different levels, thus suggesting that the tissue is composed of several layers. All the cells of this tissue rest on the basement membrane and the free surface of the cells may be provided with cilia, in which case may be referred to as “Ciliated Pseudo- stratified Epithelial Tissue 28 Q:What is the function of : basement membrane?(3/14)A: All epithelial cells rest on it Q:what is the charasteristics of simple cuboidal epithelial tissue ?(two only ) 1- composed of a single layer of cube-like cells which have quadrangular appearance. 2- Large spherical central nucleus Stratified Epithelial Tissue:-The stratified epithelial tissue comprises more than one layer of cells. It is found in areas where friction occurs, thus protecting and preserving the internal organs which it covers or lines. Columnar Squamous Transitional epithelial stratified Cubic Stratified epithelial tissue tissue epithelial epithelial tissue Stratified tissue - Sweat glands Inner lining of - Urinary bladder. Location - Lining of ducts. the mouth and ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‬ - Ureter. urethra. -Seminiferous esophagus Skin - Pelvic Kidney. tubules. epidermis. protection. It allows the organs which it lines to ‫اﻟﻮﻇﯿﻔﺔ‬ (1/2016) Protection and contract and expand Protection Function without causing any Protection secretion damage to the cells. Flattened and Squamous ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺧﺎﻟﯿﺎ‬ The surface cells of this Columnar Cubed in and may be ‫اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ‬ tissue are big with a ‫اﻟﺴﻄﺤﯿﺔ‬ shape shape keratinized, as domed apex in the epidermis skin The basal cells Polyhedral medium are vertical or The basal cells ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺧﺎﻟﯿﺎ‬ cells, basal layer cells Polyhedral cubic and rest are vertical or ‫اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪﯾﺔ‬ are cuboid-shaped and

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