EXE 120 Motor Learning And Development I PDF

EXE 120 MOTOR LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT Study Unit 1 Perspectives in Motor behaviour Prof PS Wood (DPhil-UP) Lecture 1 PURPOSE OF THE MODULE Provide a framework for understanding both the field of motor learning and the field of motor develo...

EXE 120 MOTOR LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT Study Unit 1 Perspectives in Motor behaviour Prof PS Wood (DPhil-UP) Lecture 1 PURPOSE OF THE MODULE Provide a framework for understanding both the field of motor learning and the field of motor development For exploring how motor learning and motor development interact with and affect each other. Gives you extensive understanding of the theoretical and foundational concepts of motor learning and development AND thorough understanding of development of motor skills across the lifespan of a person 2 EXE 120 Motor Development  STUDY UNIT 1: PERSPECTIVE IN MOTOR BEHAVIOUR Why? Better prepare you to teach movement skills effectively to a learner at any chronological age and at any skill level. 3 EXE 120 Motor Development STUDY UNIT 1: PERSPECTIVE IN MOTOR BEHAVIOUR STUDY UNIT (SU) OBJECTIVES: Define the fields of motor control, motor learning, and motor development. Explain several lines of motor control research. Compare motor learning and motor control. Summarise the four characteristics of motor learning. Explain the importance of motor skill classification. Classify motor skills using single-dimensional and multidimensional classifications. Distinguish between motor skills and abilities. Explain Fleishman’s taxonomy. Explain the evolution of motor development. Explain why the fields of motor behaviour are important for teaching and assessing motor skills in sport, physical activity, and health professions. 4 EXE 120 Motor Development INTRODUCTION Motor learning, motor development and motor control influences each other & are strongly related. This SU provides a background for each of these fields. Subsequent SU use a life span perspective to explain how to prepare, implement, & assess motor skill programs for any group of individuals regardless of age, developmental level, or motor skill. 5 EXE 120 Motor Development  MOTOR LEARNING OR MOTOR DEVELOPMENT? https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-mother-throwing-ball-her-cute-336769670 6 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.1: TERMINOLOGY Motor behaviour Motor Motor Motor development learning control 7 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.1 TERMINOLOGY Motor behaviour- umbrella term for the fields of motor control, motor learning & motor development. Motor control researchers investigate the neural, physical & behavioural aspects of human movement. Motor learning is the study of the processes involved in the acquisition of : A motor skill & the factors that enhance or inhibit an individual's capability to perform a motor skill. Motor development examines the products & underlying processes of motor behaviour changes across the life span. 8 EXE 120 Motor Development TABLE 1.1 SO….. A practitioner with a strong background in motor behaviour- solid foundation in how humans develop across the life span Can explain why particular behaviours have manifested design programmes that assess, diagnose or teach motor skill for instruction or rehabilitation A practitioner= any type of movement educator, incl. PE teachers, sport scientists, biokineticists, instructors & coaches. 10 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR CONTROL Motor control researchers' study the neural, physical, & behavioral aspects of human movement. Role of the neurological system on the function of the body. Reaction time as an indicator of processing speed and nerve conduction velocities under various conditions. how the system moves in a controlled & coordinated fashion. The field of motor control deals with three core issues: the degrees of freedom problem, the serial order problem, & the perceptual-motor integration problem. 11 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR CONTROL Degrees of freedom are the number of independent elements that must be constrained in order to produce coordinated motion. E.g. At the joint level, there are dozens of possibilities just to reach for a glass- wrist+ elbow+ shoulder- involved in reach each has own multiple axes of rotation. If standing hip+ knees+ ankles are also involved in coordinating the movement. 12 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR CONTROL Coordination involves- constraining the number of degrees of freedom in order to decrease the complexity of the movement task so as to produce a movement pattern & achieve a task goal. bringing together of parts into proper relation Increased coordination leads to a more positive task outcome. Must also be able to complete task with control. 13 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR COORDINATION The mover must be able to manipulate the movements in such a way as to meet the demands of the task. E.g a dancer & cricket bowler – all constrain their degrees of freedom so the timing, initiation & release, & the speed are all variables of control. 14 EXE 120 Motor Development https://www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com/south- african-cricket.html  SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR COORDINATION Coordination is thought of as performing an activity more fluidly through practice, BUT our limbs are already coordinated to perform actions together Right arm and the left arm or even the upper body with the lower body. Let’s test this out! 15 EXE 120 Motor Development  TRY THIS Regardless of your hand dominance, write your name backwards with your left hand. How difficult was this task? Did you have to concentrate on what you were doing? Did you think about which direction the letters should be going? Perhaps you even made an error and one of your letters was in the correct direction rather than backwards. 16 EXE 120 Motor Development  Now take a second writing TRY THIS utensil in your right hand (you should have one in each hand). While writing backwards with your left hand, write forwards with your right hand. Were you able to accomplish this task? Was it harder or easier than only writing backwards with your left hand? 17 EXE 120 Motor Development TRY THIS Try it a second time and see if you can do it faster while thinking only about writing with your right hand. Were you able to increase the speed and complete both tasks while not even thinking about the harder task? 18 EXE 120 Motor Development TRY THIS Hand and foot activity: Make circular motions clockwise in the air with one foot. After you've done that for a little while, add drawing 6s in the air with your finger while continuing to make circular clockwise motions with your foot. What happened when you added the second task? 19 EXE 120 Motor Development TRY THIS In both activities, did you notice that your limbs are coordinated with each other? How did the hand and foot activity compare with the writing activity? 20 EXE 120 Motor Development WHAT DOES THIS REVEAL? The limbs are coordinated. The first activity benefitted from the addition of the second limb because the movements were equal and opposite of one another, Second activity was hindered by the addition of the arm 21 EXE 120 Motor Development  EXE 120 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Study Unit 1 Perspectives in Motor behaviour Prof PS Wood (DPhil-UP) Lecture 2 SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR CONTROL Serial order problem refers to the sequencing & order of movement behaviours. The timing & order of an e.g. Importance of the sequence of sounds in activity are critical for speech or in movement nearly every movement e.g. in walking, running, we produce. or throwing. 2 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- SERIAL ORDER PROBLEM If order is changed- the sounds & meaning of the words & sentences change e,g missed / hissed or perform =spoonerisms (making errors in speech sounds by exchanging letters in adjacent words i.e. consonants switch with consonants; vowels switch with vowels e.g.dirthday instead of birthday). 3 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- SERIAL ORDER PROBLEM incorrect action= action slip e.g. pour juice instead of milk -we are more focused on the goal of pouring the liquid into a bowl of cereal & not on what we are actually pouring. 4 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- SERIAL ORDER PROBLEM Everyone makes some of these errors from time to time. So, why are they particularly interesting? 5 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- SERIAL ORDER PROBLEM Indicate that people prepare an action plan in advance, rather than planning & then executing one thought at a time= more efficient with our actions. The serial order problem has also been found in the production of correct, or accurate, movements through coarticulation 6 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- SERIAL ORDER PROBLEM Coarticulation also proves we preplan activities. Coarticulation is the simultaneous motions that occur in sequential tasks We preparing for subsequent movements rather than completing one movement before preparing for the next= move more efficiently (makes our movements faster). Evidence of this in various activities e.g. typing, grasping. 7 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- SERIAL ORDER PROBLEM Evidence of this in various activities e.g. typing, grasping. 8 EXE 120 Motor Development TRY THIS-EX 1.2 Face the student sitting next to you / Look in a mirror and say the word twilight, gold and cupid. Look at your lips as you say the words. What did you notice? 9 EXE 120 Motor Development  TRY THIS Did you notice that your lips rounded prior to producing the t, g or c sound? Examples= there is an action plan for the entire word prior to the utterance of the first sound. If each sound were planned separately, your mouth would not have changed shape until after the t, g, or c sounds. 1. What are some other words in which you can notice a preparatory action plan? 2. Provide examples of performances other than typing and grasping in which movements are prepared in advance. What is this called? 3. What are some examples of action slips that you have experienced? 10 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR CONTROL Perceptual-motor integration problem addresses how perception & motor control are integrated. E.g how movement is affected by perception &, conversely, how perception is affected by movement Perception= how we view surroundings- influenced by our senses. Perception & movement work together- influencing each other. 11 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: TERMINOLOGY- PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR INTEGRATION PROBLEM- Movement therefore: 1. improves perception- Move closer to an object to see it better/ closer to a sound to hear it better. 2. informs perception- our perception is affected by our actual/intended actions. 12 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR INTEGRATION PROBLEM We make inferences on sizes and weights of objects and this info affects how we grasp things and how much force is needed. Perceptions of objects weight and size are biased by expectations of size and perceptions of object size are biased by expectations of the weight, Lighter objects-perceived to be smaller Heavier objects- perceived to be larger. 13 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.2: PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR INTEGRATION PROBLEM 14 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 3: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR LEARNING Motor learning - the study of the processes involved in the acquisition of a motor skill & the variables that enhance or inhibit the capability to perform a motor skill. Clear distinctions between performance & learning. Learning - a relatively permanent change in the capability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience. Performance - the act of executing a motor skill, is a temporary or non-permanent change. 15 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 3: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR LEARNING Motor learning is the PROCESS of acquiring the CAPABILITY for producing skilled actions. Characteristics of learning: 1. Process of acquiring a capability for producing skilled actions 2. Occurs as a direct result of practice and is not due to maturation or physiological changes 3. Cannot be observed directly (It can only be assumed based on long term performance changes) 4. Relatively permanent changes in the capability for skilled behavior 16 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 3: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR LEARNING Motor learning also focus on examining the progression in skill from a novice to a skilled performer Regardless of the skill all learners progress through the same distinct stages of learning. Understanding these stages and models that define these stages – helps practitioner to tailor heir instruction and feedback to the learner. Can’t see learning therefore need to be aware of the variety of indicators of motor learning. 17 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 3: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR LEARNING Performance improvements (retention tests) Indicators Performance consistency Decrease physical and of mental effort learning: Reduced attentional demands Increased adaptability. 18 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 3: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR LEARNING Most NB variable in improving performance and retention= PRACTICE and 2nd is FEEDBACK Many different practice: types (variable /constant; physical /mental; part/whole; massed / distributed) variables that affect practice (age; experience; type of skill) EFFECTIVE feedback should be given: Type, accuracy, frequency Vary depending on age, skill level of the learner and difficulty of the motor skill. Critical for ALL learners (novice to experts) and ALL types of practitioners 19 EXE 120 Motor Development  EXE 120 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Study Unit 1 Perspectives in Motor behaviour Prof PS Wood (DPhil-UP) Lecture 3 (Chapter 4) SU 1. 4: SKILL CLASSIFICATION Classifications of motor skills are important for both physical educators & health professionals who design & implement motor skill programs. WHY?- certain practice designs are more appropriate for particular skill classifications. In order to prepare the learning environment, a practitioner must understand the fundamental differences across various game & motor tasks. 2 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 4: SKILL CLASSIFICATION Skills are the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty, often with minimum outlay of time or energy. An athlete or performer is considered skillful if he has achieved a criterion of excellence & is capable of performing at a high level the majority of the time. Classifying skills is NB for effective teaching & learning. 3 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: SKILL CLASSIFICATION Practitioners are better able to adapt the learning experience to a changing environment, enabling more efficient program design & maximizing motor learning. The following section examines motor skill classifications including:: Sport skills Movement taxonomies Single-dimensional classification Multidimensional classification 4 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 4: SPORT SKILLS Divided into 3 categories: 1. Cognitive skills- include the intellectual skills of the mover. These are the skills that enable a performer to make decisions & problem solve. Cognitive skills such as decision-making speed are critical in sport. 5 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 4: SPORT SKILLS 2. Perceptual skills - involve interpreting & integrating sensory information to determine the best movement outcome. Attention & previous movement experiences also affect perceptual skills. E.g. A hockey player assesses the position of defenders & teammates to determine whether to pass the ball to an open player or continue dribbling toward the goal. The speed & direction of the athlete’s movements are dependent on the perceptual information that she receives regarding the current situation. 6 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1. 4: SPORT SKILLS 3. Motor skills- include the physical elements that enable the movement. To put it simply, the activity could not be completed without the learned ability to voluntarily coordinate the limbs to produce the action. 7 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS At young ages, basic skills provide the foundation for activities with much more complicated sport- specific motor skills. These basic skills are termed fundamental motor skills. Include activities such as the overhand throw, jumping, catching, kicking, & striking. By building a basis with these fundamental motor skills, a learner is able to perform a wide array of similar activities. 8 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS E.g a child who has learned jumping, hopping, & skipping = able to perform more sport-specific activities e.g. long & high jump. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327546650_Research- 9 EXE 120 Motor Development Informed_Tips_for_Teaching_Physical_and_Health_Education/figures?lo=1 SU 1.4: MOVEMENT TAXONOMIES Taxonomies are classifications of objects/ events according to a common theme. A developmental / movement taxonomy provides a framework for grouping motor skills into themes for teaching fundamental motor skills- can be broken down into three groups: 1. non-locomotor stability, 2. locomotor skills, & 3. manipulative skills. 10 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: MOVEMENT TAXONOMIES Non-locomotor stability. Stability is the ability to maintain body position against forces of gravity. e.g divers must be able to hold a vertical position while entering the water. 11 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: MOVEMENT TAXONOMIES Locomotor skills- gross fundamental motor skills in which the goal of the movement is body transport. Cannot be developed separately from stability- people must be able to stabilize their body before they are able to perform a proficient locomotor pattern. Body transport can occur when a person is moving the body from point A to point B, but also is present during sporting activities e.g. gymnastics routine 12 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: MOVEMENT TAXONOMIES Manipulative skills- use smaller muscle groups & are classified as fine motor skills. Manipulative skills enable individuals to explore the world, bringing objects closer & feeling their size & texture to identify them. Some physical activities are specifically geared toward the manipulation of objects e.g. archery 13 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: MOVEMENT TAXONOMIES Although tasks can be classified as manipulative or locomotor- rarely occur as one or the other in complete isolation. When designing a practice sequence/ teaching a new skill- best to simplify the task by focusing on only one aspect of the movement at a time & to take each of the three developmental taxonomies into consideration. The sequence should begin with a stable task; as the performer increases in proficiency, more difficulty can be added, e.g. increased locomotion & manipulation of an implement. 14 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: MOVEMENT TAXONOMIES Developmental taxonomy progression for kicking a ball 15 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: SINGLE-DIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION 1st step in learning a new motor skill is to understand the basic elements & sequence of the movements. NB to break the activity down further into simple units/ basic skills. Skills are classified into: movement precision, environmental predictability, time constraint taxonomy, & the nature of the skill. 16 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: MOVEMENT PRECISION Fine motor skill- involving very precise movements normally accomplished using smaller musculature Gross motor skill- places less emphasis on precision & is typically the result of multi-limb movements Fine Gross 17 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTABILITY Closed motor skills – involve a stationary supporting surface, object, &/or other people; performer determines when to begin the action. e.g. picking up a cup while seated at a table. Open motor skill – involve supporting surface, object, &/or other people in motion; environment features determines when to begin the action e.g. catching a thrown ball. 18 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: OPEN-CLOSED CONTINUUM Open skills Closed skills 19 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: OPEN-CLOSED CONTINUUM An additional element of environmental predictability is Intertrial variability- incl. any change that occurs between trials, with a trial defined as a practice attempt. Open skills Closed skills High intertrial Low intertrial variability variability 20 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TIME CONSTRAINT TAXONOMY Difficulty of a task can be determined by the movement pacing of the task. Tasks in which there are no time constraints are less complex than tasks in which there are time constraints. 21 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TIME CONSTRAINT TAXONOMY Self-paced tasks- begin when initiated by the mover & as such when the mover chooses e.g. golf shot. Externally paced tasks-not self paced. e.g goalie's response to a penalty kick. Some a combination of the 2 e.g. driving driver chooses speed & route; but you must stop at red lights. 22 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: NATURE OF THE SKILL Specificity of where the movements of a skill begin or end (Fitts & Posner). Discrete motor skills - specified beginning & end points, usually require a simple movement , generally short in duration & distinct difference between their initiation & termination. 23 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: NATURE OF THE SKILL Specificity of where the movements of a skill begin or end (Fitts & Posner). Continuous motor skills - arbitrary beginning & end points; usually involve repetitive movements longer in duration, & the mover is in constant motion, appear as repetitive movements, generally simple e.g. running, cycling 24 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: NATURE OF THE SKILL Specificity of where the movements of a skill begin or end (Fitts & Posner). Serial motor skills incl. a series of discrete skills that must occur in a specific sequence e.g. vaulting, tennis serve, triple jump (sprint, hop, skip & jump). If the order of the movements can be altered ≠ serial skill 25 Open serial skill Closed serial skill EXE 120 Motor Development  SO….A DIG IN VOLLEYBALL IS….. 1. Gross motor skill (large muscle groups) 2. Open skill (affected by the environment) 3. Externally paced (player controls rate that movement is executed) 4. Discrete (clear beginning and end) 26 EXE 120 Motor Development WHAT DO YOU THINK Provide one example of each of the following classifications of skills, and define each of your examples as either self-paced or externally paced. 1. Discrete open skill 2. Discrete closed skill 3. Continuous open skill 4. Continuous closed skill 5. Serial open skill 6. Serial closed skill 27 EXE 120 Motor Development  EXE 120 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Study Unit 1 Perspectives in Motor behaviour Prof PS Wood (DPhil-UP) Lecture 4 SU 1.3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION Advantages & limitations to the One-Dimensional/single classification systems / approach: Simple & easy to follow It can be difficult to place a skill into one specific category (e.g. discrete or continuous). It doesn’t provide a sufficient picture of the performance demands of a skill. Multidimensional classification- classification system organised according to relationships among the component characteristics of what is being classified 2 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION Practitioners lead learners through a progression of movements in order to perform an open skill proficiently. Work from a closed environment (task can be simplified & controlled) progress to more challenging & adaptable open environment. Closed Open 3 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION Gentile (2000) designed a classification system for gradual progressions from closed to open environments= Gentile's taxonomy (useful tool for individualizing motor skill progressions) Gentile's taxonomy uses 2 main categories to assist practitioners in program development: the ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT & the ACTION REQUIREMENTS. 4 EXE 120 Motor Development  5 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT 1. Regulatory conditions – the environmental factors specific to a particular skill or sport e.g. size of the soccer field, ball size. Remain the same regardless of where it is played. Regulatory conditions standardize how a person must adapt to a given situation to produce a successful outcome. Classified as either stationary (less complex e.g pins in bowling or in motion (e.g. clay targets in skeet shooting). 2. Intertrial variability- Whether the regulatory conditions are the same (less complex) or different (more complex) from one performance attempt to another. 6 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT 7 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION ACTION REQUIREMENT 1. Body orientation - Does the skill require the person to move from one location to another or to stay in the same location body stability, - maintain same location e.g archery (less complex) body transport – change location e.g. basketball (more complex) 2. Object manipulation - results in change of the position of an object- more complex if this is required. 8 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 3: MULTIDIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION ACTION REQUIREMENT 9 EXE 120 Motor Development  10 EXE 120 Motor Development  Lowest in complexity Gentile's taxonomy enables an instructor to implement a precise skill progression appropriate for learners of all developmental levels to enable them to progress to their desired level of difficulty. Highest in complexity 11 EXE 120 Motor Development  WHAT DO YOU THINK 1. Choose one motor skill and explain how you can modify the skill, the environment, or both to fit into 4 of the 16 categories in Gentile's multidimensional classification system. The motor skill can be related to a sport or be a therapeutic activity. 2. Begin by selecting the most appropriate category for the motor skill you have selected, and then work your way up the classification system by providing three examples of how to simplify the motor skill, allowing for increased success and progressions to improve the motor skill or therapeutic activity. 3. Label how the skill would be classified according to the environmental context and action requirements (See Table 4.1/pg 73 in prescribed book) 12 EXE 120 Motor Development WHAT DO YOU THINK Hitting off a tee = stationary and consistent environmental conditions, no body transport, and object manipulation. Hitting a ball hanging on a rope= stationary and variable environmental conditions, no body transport, and object manipulation. A baseball swing at a predictable pitch (knowing the type of pitch) =moving and consistent environmental conditions, no body transport, and object manipulation. A baseball swing at an unpredictable pitch (not knowing the type of pitch, speed, or timing) and base running =moving and variable environmental conditions, body transport, and object manipulation. 13 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: SKILL VERSUS ABILITY Skills – learned Abilities- product of learning + genetics Skills- a level of proficiency on a specific motor task, while abilities are part of an individual's traits that affect her capability to become skillful when learning a new motor task. 14 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: SKILL VERSUS ABILITY Abilities- genetically predetermined characteristics that affect movement performance e.g agility, coordination, strength, & flexibility. difficult to change in adults. abilities are a product of both learning & genetic factors differ from skills as skills are learned, abilities are part of an individual's traits that affect her capability to become skillful when learning a new motor task.. 15 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MOTOR ABILITY HYPOTHESES Initial researchers - hypothesized the existence of only one general motor ability. This hypothesis was based on observations of accomplished athletes who were adept at many Clara Hughes - Canadian cyclist and speed athletic events & also able to skater who has won quickly learn new & unfamiliar multiple Olympic medals in motor skills. both sports It may appear that there are many athletes who are capable of performing very skillfully across many different motor skills. 16 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MOTOR ABILITY HYPOTHESES Research examining individuals' performances across different activities supports the notion that every motor skill requires very specific abilities for skillful performance. Termed the specificity hypothesis Henry (1968) proposed that each individual has a large number of separate & independent abilities. 17 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.3: SKILL VERSUS ABILITY E.g. abilities required for a skilled race car driver- rate control, manual dexterity, stamina, control precision, & reaction time & a figure skater performing the triple axel requires abilities such as explosive strength, dynamic flexibility, gross body coordination, & multilimb coordination.. 18 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: MOTOR ABILITY SPECIFICITY HYPOTHESES Fleishman (1962) developed a taxonomy to identify each ability & separated abilities into 2 main categories, perceptual-motor abilities & physical proficiency abilities (table 2.2). Fleishman's taxonomy is NOT an exhaustive list of motor abilities, but it provides a framework to assess individual differences. 19 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: FLEISHMAN’S TAXONOMY OF MOTOR ABILITIES 20 EXE 120 Motor Development  21 EXE 120 Motor Development  22 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: SKILL VERSUS ABILITY Factors which affect abilities are: 1. Biological & physiological factors e.g. m.fibre composition going to affect his physical proficiency motor abilities such as strength, endurance, & flexibility. Physiological deficits in the development of rods & cones would also limit an individual's perceptual-motor abilities, potentially affecting reaction time. 23 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: SKILL VERSUS ABILITY Factors which affect abilities are: 2. Environmental factors- learning opportunities e.g. children who participate in physical fitness- or sport-related programs will develop their motor abilities. The rate at which abilities develop varies across childhood & adolescence, both within individuals & across individuals. 24 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.3: SKILL VERSUS ABILITY Factors which affect abilities are: 3. Growth & maturation changes- affect the rate at which abilities develop which varies across childhood & adolescence, both within individuals & across individuals. Levels out between 18-22 years of age and through adulthood. Clients can acquire motor skills once they have the underlying abilities; however, they can have the underlying abilities but not 25 be skillful in a particular motor skill EXE 120 Motor Development  EXE 120 MOTOR LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT I Study Unit 1 Perspectives in Motor behaviour Prof PS Wood (DPhil-UP) Lecture 5 SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Sub-discipline of motor behaviour. Examines the age related, successive changes that occur over a life- span and the processes and factors that affect these changes. Focus on process (underlying mechanisms of change) E.g. distance a javelin is thrown- outcome Action that was performed to produce the throw = process Development is successive (following in uninterrupted order) Development is systematic (step-by-step procedures) E.g. infant progressing through milestones of raising the head, to rolling over, to crawling & then to walking. 2 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT: MOTOR COMPETENCE Measurement aspect of a movement is termed motor competence (proficiency) A child’s growth and development require the development of locomotor, ball skills, and balance competence Assessed according to product (the outcome of process (the underlying performance) or mechanisms of change) 3 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Changes that result from practice or experience = due to motor learning NOT motor development. e.g. Coach instructing a student to snap his wrist in a squash swing rather than using a solid-arm swing in tennis. Development is related to; but not dependant on age. 4 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Development can occur over various time scales. Phylogeny is the evolutionary development of a species, which may take many hundreds even thousands of years. Ontogeny is development occurring over the life span of one individual. The focus in this module is on ontogenetic development. 5 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Terms growth & development interchangeably, each refers to something fundamentally different Physical growth= an Increase is due to increase in body size or in changes on cellular level individual parts that occurs (hypertrophy, hyperplasia & accretion). through maturation. Development occurs throughout the life span. Continually undergoing cognitive, physical & psychosocial changes regardless of their age. 6 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Maturation= the fixed transitions or order of progressions that enable a person to progress to higher levels of function. Incl. internal processes that are unaffected by external factors e.g. the environment. To understand maturation properly, we must realise that each child differs at the timing and tempo of this process. Timing refers to ‘when’ maturation begins, while tempo refers to the ‘rate’ at which it progresses. 7 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT External factors such as learning experiences, parental influence, & physical surroundings, can change the timing of developmental transitions. e.g. A child who has been given a ball during infancy more likely to be able to catch & throw at an earlier age than a child who was not. Not receiving a ball does not prevent the child from learning how to catch & throw but will delay the onset of these skills. 8 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Aging - a process or group of processes occurring in living organisms that with the passage of time lead to a loss of adaptability, functional impairment, & eventually death. the progression of life from birth whereby an individual matures & continues through physical decline, ending with death. People are often classified by chronological age to avoid confusion in defining age groups. 9 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: TERMINOLOGY- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Description Age/ transition marker Newborn Birth to 6 weeks Infant Six weeks to age at walking Toddler Age at walking to 2 years Preschooler Age 3 to age at start of school Young child Age at start of school to 7 years Child Eight to 10 years Preadolescent Eleven years to onset of puberty Adolescent Onset of puberty to 20 years Young adult Age 21 to 40 years Middle-aged Age 41 to 60 years adult Young-old adult Age 61 to 74 years Old adult Age 75 to 99 years 10 Centenarian Age 100+ years EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT The history of the field of motor development can be divided into 4 periods: Precursor Period Maturational Period Normative Period Process-orientated Period 11 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Precursor Main method for studying motor development was (1787-1928) through descriptive observations= focus on the product or outcome of development. 141 years Era where Charles Darwin = nature vs nurture 1. Development occurs as a function of nature assumes that maturation occurs due to genetic or internal factors= maturational perspective (1930s) during the maturational period. 2. Environmentalism perspective= not heredity that moulds the maturational process; rather, humans are nurtured by their environment (still current view). Descriptive observation of human 12 EXE 120 Motor Development movement SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Darwin wrote masterpiece “A biographical sketch of an infant” Describes observations of his son ‘Doddy’ and published as a short paper in the philosophical journal Mind in 1877. Charles Darwin 13 and his eldest son William EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Precursor Charles Darwin did not believe that nature or nurture (1787-1928) favours one developmental process over another. Believed that the environment (nurture) & genetic factors (nature) interact. Maturationists= assume that a child born with the underlying abilities to excel at certain sports will eventually exhibit excellence in those sports. Environmentalists = propose that even basic skills must be developed. Either individuals who are not given the appropriate equipment or environment to learn such skills will be delayed in developing them, or the skills may never materialize. 14 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 15 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Maturational (1928- Arnold Gesell led the maturationist 1946) 18 years movement, asserted that infant maturity is genetically predetermined. Maturationists assume that these transitions are set & controlled by nature not influenced by external factors e.g. environment Fetal growth patterns (also Gesell). Growth occurs in a cephalocaudal direction- head develops first & distal structures grow more slowly (A). Concurrently developing in a proximodistal direction- trunk advances at a faster rate than the limbs (B). 16 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 17 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Maturational (1928-1946) Secondary focus was on motor learning. 18 years Maturation & learning are not different processes, just different facets of the fundamental process of growth McGraw - environment has a strong influence on motor development, but also that there appear to be critical periods in which improvement can be optimized through advanced opportunities & instruction. 18 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Normative (1946-1970) Following World War II focus on movement 24 years skills in school-age children physical aspects of development. The focus on the physical rather than cognitive aspects. Shift from process to product-oriented research. Interested in anthropometric measures (growth measures) through childhood & the role of maturation & strength changes in children 19 EXE 120 Motor Development  SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Normative Wanted to improve motor skill instruction through (1946-1970) 24 years understanding changes in motor performance. Focused on the processes underlying performance changes when new simple motor skills are learned & on the evaluation of such performances. 20 EXE 120 Motor Development SU 1.4: EVOLUTION OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Period Characteristics Process-oriented A re-emergence of motor development research = (1970-present) in early 1970s as psychologists developed renewed 47 years and interest in the field. counting Study focused on hypothesis-driven research 3 theoretical constructs emerged (still used today): *the information processing approach, *ecological psychology, & *dynamic systems theory. NB to have a basic understanding of the theories that drive research in motor development & motor learning in order to 21 understand & interpret experimental findings in these fields. EXE 120 Motor Development  SUMMARY Motor behavior has three subfields of study: motor learning, motor development, and motor control Three main areas of research in motor control are degrees of freedom problem, serial order problem, and perceptual motor integration problem Motor learning results in a permanent change while performance is only a temporary change Skill classification is important for practitioners to design effective practice and feedback schedules Motor development examines age-related successive changes that occur across a life span 22 EXE 120 Motor Development