AI Midterm Review PDF

Native: broad (refer to specific tribal groups) Indigenous: could be from everywhere Indian: incorrect but most familiar Nation: governing system Tribe: similar to nation, label all people of a cultural group or reservation government Reservation: homes, land reserves for indian nations Band: treaty...

Native: broad (refer to specific tribal groups) Indigenous: could be from everywhere Indian: incorrect but most familiar Nation: governing system Tribe: similar to nation, label all people of a cultural group or reservation government Reservation: homes, land reserves for indian nations Band: treaty purposes, chiefs from different villages belonging to a band Sovereignty: supreme and independent authority over a geographic area, indian nations have power and control over reservations, enables treaty rights, casinos, tax laws, languages, some limitations (ex: no armies) Hochungra: people of the big voice/sacred language, central location prompts them to believe they are the original people ○ Clans: 2 divisions, Earth (8) Bear Clan war chiefs, Sky (4) Thunderbird Clan peace chiefs ○ Originated in Moga-Shooch (Red Banks), WI near Green Bay ○ Currently patrilineal, originally thought to be matrilineal (power descends from father/mother side) ○ Close to Menominee, enemies with Illinois ○ Displaced by Anishinaabe Population decline and economic dependence on European trade goods/participation in fur trade left tribe vulnerable to white settlers Lead became the main trade good after American Revolution 1783, but encroachment caused them to turn to defense strategies ○ Militant members of Tecumseh’s anti-settler alliance ○ Backed the British in the War of 1812 Signed peace treaty with St. Louis Americans in 1814 By 1825, 10,000+ miners invaded, signed “Peace and Friendship Treaty” at Prairie du Chien but didn’t help for long Red Bird surrender in 1827 Black Hawk War 1829-1832 ○ Moved in exchange of corn, it was bad ○ Battle of Bad Axe 1,200 → 150 band members ○ Divided the Ho-Chunk support  Ceded lands south of Wisconsin/Fox Rivers to Rock River (Madison to Wisconsin Dells) and move to Iowa 1837: moved to northern minnesota, some resisted known as descendants of “renegades” or “rebel faction” 1855: moved from Long Prairie, MN to south central Blue Earth, MN Civil War 1861 ○ Ho-Chunk to Union Army (MN, NB, WI) ○ Sioux Uprising 1862 killed 500 settlers → urgency of Ho-Chunk removal 1863: 2,000 left to South Dakota, 1,200 ended up in Omaha, NB, rest died 1874: 650 of 1,000 WI sent to NB came back home 1881: congress allows 40-acre Ho-Chunk homestead in WI 1906: homesteads became taxable, foreclosed, and bought up 1930s: cranberries, Social Security, tourism Religious Assimilation and Schooling ○ Tomah Indian Industrial School - religious boarding school, unable to speak native language → family and community dissociation, was education worth it? 1934: Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) offered constitutional government, Ho-Chunk declined 1946: Acting Wisconsin Winnebago Business Committee (WWBC) ○ Nebraska Winnebago and Ho-Chunk worked together to meet tribal needs\ ○ Formed Executive, Legislative, Judicial, and General Councils ○ 40 → 150 acres of land (added in Black River Falls) 1974: $4.6 million compensation from Indian Claims Commission Today: 7,100 members of Ho-Chunk Nation, 8,800 acres of land, 20 WI counties ○ Biggest challenge is still lack of land base, they want bison ○ 10-year plan: self-determination, self-sufficiency, balanced economic structure, elimination of unemployment, tribal land acquisition, cultural preservation ○ Impact on Regional Economy: casinos, hotels, movie theaters, etc. 3,300+ employees $4 million to vendors ○ Housing crisis is getting better over time, $5 mil affordable housing project 2001-2011 ○ Health continues to be a struggle, many have type-2 diabetes ○ Focus on care for elders and veterans  ○ Education: 79% HS diploma, 37% college - still need to do better Learn the language - only 9% were fluent in 1994 Positionality and Indigenous Studies Ho-Chunk Land ○ Ho-Chunk Nation (Hochungra, People of the Big or Sacred Voice) ○ Teejop (four lakes) Terminology ○ Capitalize: “Indigenous”, “Native American”, “American Indian” ○ Pluralize: “Indigenous peoples” Indigenous: pre-invasion/pre-colonial historical societies, distinct from other sectors now prevailing on the same territory, connections and knowledges to a land base, autonomous social/economic/political systems Used in a global context, very broad, different types of colonization Aboriginal: not preferred (has been use Australia/Canada context) First Nations: also AUS and CAN ○ US Terms American Indian Legal and political term Indigenous peoples and tribal nations within US Federal (or state) recognition, treaties nation-to-nation Native American or Native Preferred by many, more inclusive than Amer. Ind. Can be confused with e.g. “Wisconsin native” Alaska Native Not legally considered American Indian Federally recognized in a different way than treaties Native Hawaiian Recognized to some extent politically No treaty relationships with US E.g. can’t access Bureau of Indian Affairs Services Pacific Islander Indigeneity of US territories Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands, etc.  ○ These are terms that have been placed on to indigenous people, not created by themselves ○ Offensive/Derogatory Terms Chippewa (correctly Ojibwe, Anishinaabe) Sioux (correctly Oceti, Sakowin, Dakota, Lakota, Nakota) Winnebago (correctly Ho-Chunk) “Eskimo” (correctly Alaskan Native) Preference and Code Switching ○ E.g. broad → Native, Indigenous, American Indian ○ E.g. specific → Ojibwe (White Earth nation), Pillager Band, Anishinaabe Indigenous peoples are not a monolithic group - distinct cultures and languages Not all Indigenous people prefer the same terms ○ Avoid using “Indian”, “Native American Indian”, “Native culture/language” ○ Always capitalize and pluralize terms Key Concepts of the Field Diversity 574 federally recognized tribal nations in the US ○ 334 reservations ○ 35 states ○ 109 tribal nations in CA ○ 228 Native Corporations in Alaska **** Tribal Nations of Wisconsin **** 11 federally recognized Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Brothertown Nation (unrecognized) ○ Descendants of Mohegan Montaukett, Narragansett, Niantic, Pequot, Tunxis nations ○ Formally unified in 1785 ○ Christian Indians “praying town” ○ Moved to Oneida land in 1775 ○ 1820s and 1830s removal from New York state ○ 1830s removal from Wisconsin and privatization of land Lost federal recognition from trying to hold onto land Forest County Potawatomi  Ho-Chunk Nation Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Lac du Flambeau Federally Recognized Tribal Nations Political and legal identity Entering into land negotiations with Unrecognized Tribes - Are they really even native? No access to american indian associations Often have previous relationships with US government State government relationships Codified through law and culturally to assume their tribes are extinct Waplog in Massachusetts - Thanksgiving State Recognized Tribes Not access to federal services Work in groups to try and secure legal benefits Actively continue to pursue federal recognition Sovereignty Right to govern oneself, people, land, resources Tribal sovereignty often misunderstood ○ Operate as independent nations within the US ○ Own constitutions, laws, elections, infrastructure ○ Own rights, lands, assets, resources ○ Treaties between two sovereign nations ○ Important because sovereign nations know best what their people need (economy, education, healthcare, infrastructure) ○ Does not “grant” sovereignty, only recognizes another distinct entity exists and enters an agreement with them Always has been sovereign ○ “Government-to-government” principle, nation-to-nation Treaty: an agreement between two sovereign nations ○ NOT giving away land or rights If anything, it’s natives giving rights to US ○ Relationship rights to land, water, animals ○ Disregarded, broken, not fully upheld  ○ “supreme law of the land” not always true in case of the US side ○ Living documents because tribes continue to speak their terms and remember the promises ○ Dakota Access Pipeline - ○ Mutual respect between signers needs to be maintained Land treaties give rights to usage of land that was ceded Peace treaties between settlers and natives ○ Treaty rights does not mean special rights, rather retained rights Usufruct - ability to use land you don’t legally own (e.g. national parks, spaces off of reservation) ○ US Treaty Making 370 tribal treaties were ratified, more were negotiated but not to congress Ending treaty making during Ulysses S. Grant presidency X-Mark: consent in context of coercion, already decided for them/threats, language barriers caused treaty misinterpretation and coercion Actively protested unfair treaties, used treaties to get other things like healthcare and education (not passive victims) Settler Colonialism “The settler comes to stay” - Patrick Wolfe ○ New society will spring up where indigenous peoples already live “A structure, not an event” - Patrick Wolfe ○ Encoded legally, politically, culturally ○ Ongoing Settlers replace Indigenous populations by any means possible, including genocide ○ Goal is to take full ownership of land and remove existing population “Playing Indian” ○ Boston Tea Party - dressing up as Indians, use of indigeneity to prove they have more right to stay on the land than the British Manifest Destiny: the US has a divine right to westward expansion ○ “American Progress” by John Gast 1872 - America is exceptional because it was built from European origin but revolted and gained independence ○ Natives are shown being chased and ran out of the west Week 3 Readings Treuer, “Where are all the real Indians?” and “What does traditional mean?”, pp. 64-65;  - All cultures change over time, real Indians carry the identity with them - Identity: heredity, tribal languages, connections to tribal communities, traditional lifeways, not just stereotypes - Hard to define traditional, subject - Cultures, languages, tech, values shift too much too fast - E.g. Ponemah (religion, language, traditional lifeways) vs Red Lake (heredity, hunting/fishing, reservation affiliation) “Why do Indians have reservations? To “What’s it like for Natives who are a part of a recognized tribe?” pp., 127-132; - Reservations: retained portions of original tribal homelands (what was not taken or sold) - 1830s Marshall Trilogy court cases affirmed reservations - Sacred, tribal “self-rule” - Dual citizens of tribal nation and US - 1924 Indian Citizenship Act - State recognition: affirms political identity - Federal recognition: federal financial resources to support tribal operations - If not at all recognized, feels invisible, not eligible for housing or scholarships, can’t inherit property from family members “What is blood quantum, what is tribal enrollment, and how are they related?”, pp. 158-162; - Blood Quantum: percentage of racial lineage that can be documented as Indian, determines eligibility for tribal enrollment, fractions up to 64ths, flawed measurement system, tribes are shrinking because less people are eligible and funding is lowered - Lineal Descent: alternative to blood quantum, proof of direct Indian ancestor, would take over tribal politics if too many new people enter “Why don’t tribes solve their own problems to “What is meant by the term ‘Pretendian?’”, pp. 232-238 - 1975 Indian Self Determination and Education Assistance Act - Meaningful formal apologies and mandated instruction of genocidal policies toward Indians - Pretendian: non-Indigenous people assuming a Native identity - Misrepresentation, offensive/mocking, used for political or monetary gain - “When Natives fight Natives, White supremacy wins.” Deconstructing American Myths Myth 1: Indigenous people are mostly extinct  Fast growing population Dramatic increase in people who self-identify as Native Rise in tribal enrollment ○ 5.2 mil in 200- to 6.9 mil in 2020 Over 70% of natives live in cities instead of reservations - sometimes considered “not native enough” “The Vanishing Indian” - in 1890 as US reached full settlement, indigenous time was over due to the movement from east to west coasts ○ End of the Trail by James Earle Fraser, 1915 Forcibly removed, joined other tribes, but still maintained their identity of a distinct people Who is a “real” Indigenous person? The Traditional/Assimilated Divide ○ Traditional - do things the way ancestors did pre-colonialism ○ Assimilated - “less native”, modern lifeways All cultures change over time ○ Native peoples are modern peoples ○ No “pure” or “authentic” native person ○ Not stuck in the past ○ Not extinct Myth: Native history is “pre-history” “Discovery” - the arrival of Europeans (Chistopher Columbus) begins the true history of these lands, the notion that there was no true civilization before colonization ○ Cahokia: larger than any European city at that time, near modern day St. Louis ○ Chaco Canyon: people traveled to gather there for ceremonies and feasts, needed well maintained trade routes to get there ○ Tenochtitlan: center of Aztec civilization built in the middle of water Native history is US history: stop talking about natives in history past 1890 but that doesn’t mean they disappeared Myth: Pocahontas, the First Thanksgiving, and the US origin story are mostly true. Matoaka (Pocahontas): real person, 11 years old when Europeans came to her homeland, wouldn’t have interacted with John Smith - he wrote them to gain more funding to come back to the Americas to continue settlements The First Thanksgiving: Myth: “All that violence happened in the past. Indians were conquered and should get over it.”  Settler Colonialism and Ongoing Violence: e.g. violence against peaceful protesters, missing and murdered indigenous women Historical and Intergenerational Trauma: cumulative emotional turmoil ○ Massacres ○ Forced displacement and removal ○ Boarding schools Survivance, Resurgence, and other Indigenous Concepts of Continued Existence ○ Cultural practices ○ Ceremonies ○ Languages What Defines American Indian Identity? What constitutes native identity? Who gets to decide what makes up native identity? Enrollment/Citizenship/Membership The system and process for citizenship/membership ○ Tribal members are citizens of sovereign nations (dual citizenship) ○ No universal standard to tribal enrollment practices Prove 25% Indian blood required by federal government Blood Quantum The amount of “Indian blood” and individual possesses Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB) Setting up a process where Natives will eventually disappear over time by mixing with non-Indian people Problems with recording in census (e.g. children of same parents would have different fractions) Founded in racial science - eugenics ○ Full-bloods = more authentically Indian ○ Mixed-bloods = closer to whiteness/”civilized” Tests like hair thickness, scratch test How does blood quantum impact Native identity? ○ Notions of authenticity ○ Who you date/marry and have children with History of homophobia within tribes as it it seen as “detrimental to the tribe”, racism towards black people ○ Reinforces faulty racial science and eugenics (only one way to look) Lineal Descent One biological ancestor has been enrolled/counted as a tribal citizen Tribe has genealogists that can trace ancestors Within the last 2-3 generations Overtime people can’t enroll because of blood quantum, so descent is becoming more of a conversation ○ Are you learning the language ○ Are you of service to your people/take on responsibilities “One-Drop Rule”: one drop of black blood → deemed black and enslavable, reversed for natives - one drop of non-native blood deemed “less Indian” Cherokee Freedman: descendants of people enslaved by the Cherokee Nation granted tribal citizenship not as Cherokee, but as Cherokee Freedman, got disenrolled and then reinstated, ongoing conversation of being not welcome in our nation due to practices of anti-blackness in some nations DNA/Ancestry Tests Biological determination of nativeness based on DNA sample Contemporary tests give ethnic regions not specific tribe names (problematic) ○ Don’t tell the whole story of belonging and citizenship, has a legal definition ○ “Not about who you claim, it's about who claims you” “Cherokee Princess” phenomenon - claim ancestry that came from something negative like violence/colonialism Self-Identification: legal documents asking about race, marked as mixed not native Week 4 Readings Colonization and the US Occupation of Hawaii US occupied Hawaiian Islands since 1898, became a state in 1959 Secret debate reveals illegal annexation of hawaiian islands Britain and France Anglo-Franco Declaration - Hawaiian Islands is an “Independent State” can’t be colonized 2 failed treaties of annexation so they resorted to…. Newlands Resolution during Spanish-American War to acquire Hawaii for military purposes ○ joint resolution is not a treaty and illegal means of acquiring territory under US domestic law or international law, but congress passed it and president signed off ALOHA (Aboriginal Lands of Hawaiian Ancestry) Association created in 1971  ○ Hawaiian Native Claims Settlement Act - after 1972 Alaska natives given $1 billion in money and land reparations from congress Hawaiian Native Fund of $1 billion - be invested by US in same manner as Indian trust funds Hawaiian Native Corporation - receive and administer benefits ○ No other aboriginal group impacted by the US was an autonomous sovereign nation recognized by the community of nations at the time it was wronged Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) ○ Created by state government when ALOHA Association failed to pass Hawaiian Native Claims Act in 1977 ○ Some wording from HNCA was integrated into the state constitution in 1978 ○ Holds in trust 1.8 million acres of land that was illegally seized in 1898 Prolonged occupation resembles colonization - abuse of power, continuing presence in occupied territory with illegality Trask: mentor of Young, introduce historical struggles and oppression, categorizes native hawaiians as indigenous people Protesters at ‘Iolani Palace arrested in 1990 including Young Apology Resolution by Bill Clinton 1993 Kanalu Young “Rethinking the Native Hawaiian Past” occupation theory Treuer “What is the status of Alaska Natives” pg. 132 Alaska became a state in 1959 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ○ Created 12 regions, organizing many tribal groups in each region into a corporation ○ 13th region established for descendants of Natives no longer in Alaska ○ Regions hold rights to land and natural resources ○ Amount of money didn’t make up for Alaskan suffering, loses, continued poverty ○ Not as powerful as treaty status elsewhere in US Alaska Native Politics Since the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Failure to address sovereignty and subsistence, use of the corporate model as a vehicle for land claims 1971 congress passes ANCSA: largest Indigenous land claims settlement in US history  ○ Extinguished aboriginal title in Alaska in exchange for $926.5 million and 44 million acres (1/9 of state) First settlement to use corporations to administer resources Indian reservations/trust funds held by federal government → transferred title to settlement lands to Alaska Native-owned for-profit corporations Extinguished aboriginal hunting and fishing rights Aimed to integrate rural native communities into mainstream capitalist system Didn’t address sovereignty or subsistence (aboriginal right with cultural meanings for Native peoples) Opportunities for economic advancement, political power, used to support cultural and social anti-assimilation agendas - new method of self determination 13 regional corporations, 200+ village corporations Communal lands → corporate property, disrupts traditional land management practices ○ Separates tribes from land ○ Vulnerable to loss ○ Colonial imposition Native shareholders in regional and village corps ○ Could sell stock after 20 years → land vulnerable to non-Native takeover Next generation of leaders could be forced to represent non-­Native corporate interests ○ disenfranchisement of children born after 1971 ○ cutoff for shareholder enrollment ○ diminishes Native identity and communities Believed ANCSA was the best they could win, congress consulted native organizations and had them on settlement committee ○ Hostile political environment: Alaska Statehood Act 1958 after terminated status of 109 Indian tribes ○ Possible political and economic advantages, more than tribal governments Laws can be changed Gradual encroachment vs warfare Ruled inconsistently on whether Indian Country exists in Alaska Land, Sovereignty, and Colonization of Alaska Russia previously came in 1740s for fur, enslaved Natives, spread Christianity, still Russian influence on south coast US acquired Alaska by treaty with Russia in 1867 Alaska Purchase  ○ 60,000 Natives resided, first non-Indian indigenous population in US ○ 1867 Treaty of Cession: aboriginal tribes are subject to US laws Bureau of Education charged with Alaska Native services → 1931 Office of Indian Affairs ○ Alaska Natives subject to same policies and eligible for same programs as American Indians 1959 Court of Claims decision in Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska v. United States ○ strongest legal basis for aboriginal claims in Alaska Whaling, commercial fishing, fur harvesting, gold mining threatened Native life ○ Settlers also brought disease and deadly epidemics Alaska’s rugged terrain offered a Native advantage: horses couldn’t pull over mountains, summer outposts would be ruined after winter, no telegraph communication 1966 Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN): organization to press for land claims ○ Fought oil pipeline Alaska Native Policies After ANCSA 1988 amendments to ANCSA: extended stock restrictions, issue new stock to natives born after 1971, protect underdeveloped lands from taxation Large economic benefits ○ Extraction of natural resources (oil, gas, minerals) ○ Created jobs for native shareholders ○ Generated cash dividends ○ Educational foundations and human services organizations Non-profit entities for social needs created (housing, health, education, employment, legal assistance) e.g. CIRI 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA): grants subsistence rights to residents (not just Natives) of rural land, same federal protections on state and private land, doesn’t address tribal authority over hunting or fishing or give rights to urban Natives Corporate ownership diminishes tribal control over ancestral territories, while pressures for profitable development can undermine community uses of land for cultural and subsistence purposes e.g. timber harvest The Venetie decision recognized tribal status separate from American Indians - American Indians were taken over by settler colonialism, Alaska and Hawaii were more imperialism, Hawaii might be an example of “soft” colonialism because missionaries  brought Christianity and changed voting rights and Alaska because a lot of it was economic - Hawaii seemed to have the most organized and nationally recognized sovereignty or autonomous government e.g. they had a kingdom and sent representatives to global powers - The Alaska articles focused a lot on legality which wasn’t discussed as much in Hawaii - Alaska and Hawaii were a secondary focus to the US empire, they only sought them out after westward expansion had been completed What Defines Alaska Native Identity? Terminology of Empire: establishment of an invading force ○ Imperialism: deliberate extension of a nation's power/influence, establishing an empire of colonies that extract resources from other countries to support their mother country (metropole) ○ Colonialism: practice or strategy of imperialism on the ground, the way the empire metropole maintains foreign control over people and territories through military, religion, violence, enslavement etc. ○ “Soft” Colonialism: projects of empire that isn’t just physically violent - assimilation, social and cultural devaluation of indigenous culture, identities, knowledge How is Alaska Different (from American Indians)? Imperialism and colonization No treaties - no sovereignty recognized by government No reservations - land held “in trust” meaning federal government holds legal title to land to “protect it” but can also turn on the natives and take it away because they own it Private land holding corporations and villages Question of sovereignty is unsettled Settler colonialism not as much Racialization changes - indigenous vs non-white ethnic minority Alaska Native Diversity Very big - 663,000 square miles Arctic → Continental → Transitional → Maritime sections of the state 229 federally recognized tribes 20 distinct languages Highest population of indigenous peoples in the country Alaska Native Histories Russian Imperialism (1700s to 1867) ○ Violence and enslavement - labor for fur trade American Imperialism ○ 1867 Treaty of Cession - US buys Alaska from Russia Native peoples were not consulted ○ 1933 inclusion in federal Indian law ○ 1959 Alaska statehood ○ 1968 oil discovered → 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) Alaska Native Political Organizing ○ 1912 Alaska Native Brotherhood and Sisterhood Address racial discrimination/segregation, rights to land use and ownership, full US citizenship for natives ○ Elizabeth Peratrovich (Tlingit): helped push 1945 anti-discriminatory legislation, advocated for housing, education, business access What Defines Native Hawaiian and Indigenous Identities in Occupied US Territories? 19th Century US Imperialism (1800s) ○ 1898 Treaty of Paris marks end of Spanish-American War - European nations transferred their colonies to US at the end of the war ○ Coincides with closure of American frontier in 1890 - so many people there that it was “fully settled”, worrisome because their whole idea was expansion and now they need to find new ways to do so outside of continental US Kanaka Maoli sovereignty/”Hawaiian Native sovereignty”: ruled by kingdom with chief government per each unique island, class structures, organized religion, land use/ownership practices Native Hawaiian History with Non-Hawaiians ○ 1778: Europeans (James Cook) come to Hawaii Brought disease, ruined socioeconomic society, Cook kidnapped and imprisoned Hawaiian leader and was killed in 1979 Natives realized violence might be used when people try to take over ○ 1810: unification of Kingdom of Hawaii under single monarch King Kamehameha Engage with global powers and build presence on national stage ○ 1820s: Americans arrive to violently convert to Christianity Planter class: use Hawaii for resources, sugar  Americans increased power by integrating into their established society e.g. voting rights Hawaii placed high tariffs on sugar - economics suffered but maintained power over planters ○ 1880s: US decides to use Hawaii for military purposes (Pearl Harbor) ○ 1887: Bayonet Constitution - King forced to sign new constitution stripping native citizens of most of their rights and give power to white missionary group ○ 1893: Queen Liliuokalani (wanted to extend suffrage, disenfranchise Americans) overthrown and imprisoned - later traveled to Washington DC to stop annexation ○ 1898: US President signed to illegally annex sovereign nation Kingdom of Hawaii ○ 1959: Hawaiian statehood ○ 1993: US apology passes Senate - claiming that they shouldn’t have done it but didn’t give land back or recognizing Hawaiian sovereignty Many Native Hawaiians continue to believe that they are not Americans and should have never been taken over by US Hula Dance: “Bridge to the past”, “foundation of Hawaiian people” “dance, think, souls as one” 5 Unincorporated US Territories Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands Guam American Samoa US Virgin Islands Indigenous Peoples and Their Rights Within Occupied US Territories Lack of sovereignty Certain fundamental rights, not all American rights ○ Have first amendment, due process ○ Don’t have right to trial by jury ○ Each territory varies with what rights they have ○ No voting delegate or electoral college ○ No access to federal services for indigenous people or dual citizenship Asian Pacific Islanders - considered themselves as indigenous but do not get indigenous rights because they are instead considered a racial minority  Chamorro people of Guam: US citizens but identify as Chamorro/Guamanian, fear of being seen as “anti-American”, always feel treated differently no matter how much they embrace American culture so why would they Early History - Connection between Ho-Chunk oral history and evidence cave drawings in Gottschall suggests rather than being separate peoples, later cultures evolved from and intersected with earlier ones - Used pictographs as mnemonic devices to help tribes remember important events and complex ceremonies e.g. Anishinaabe - Wampum belts: used to communicate messages e.g. Potawatomi white = peace, purple/red = war, black = sorrow - 12,000 years ago after Ice Age first humans came over land bridge - Origin stories say Indian nations have been in Wisconsin since “the beginning of time” - Water once covered the Earth in stories - Ojibwe: Winneboozho and the Great Flood - Oneida: Sky World and Tree of Life - Petroglyphs, stone tools, arrowheads, pottery, campsites are physical evidence of early human existence and help understand what life was like - Appreciation for animals they hunt and plants that sustain them, personify them and make it spiritual - Reliable food supply due to agriculture led to larger more permanent villages, political structures (clans with different duties), and artistic and religious expression - Chiefs put the tribe’s interest above their own, were generous and well respected, Six Nations Confederacy - Need oral history and stories to see the full picture of what happened in the past, not just physical artifacts or written evidence European Arrivals - 1634 French traders came, but likely European contact before then - French allied with Algonquian, Dutch allied with Five Nations - Tension between Ho-Chunk and Odaawa, Sioux, Meskwaki, Algonquian - Allied with Menomonie, both faced disease, warfare, territory encroachment, depleted resources - French did not have immediate effect on tribes that British did (native cultural absorption) - Copper tools, marriage, trade dependency  - Women political influence diminished after separation of tribes into smaller groups - French gave prizes and attention to tribe members after being frustrated with political structure to create divides and undermine them - Alcohol introduced to sway trade negotiations, christianity introduced - 1649: Huron Confederacy collapses, ruining trade system - 1659: new trade proposition by 2 frenchman who didn’t pay royalties to the Crown who later said they couldn’t trade w/ Indians anymore, tribes re-occupied land that was taken over after Europeans relocated - 1753-1759 French and Indian War, British won, Great Lakes were neutral, Anishinaabe hired themselves out as mercenaries - Amherst fear and reprisal strategy led to Native resentment towards British - 1763 Great Lakes tribes took over British forts - Proclamation of 1763 prevented colonists from settling west of Appalachians - Indian loyalties shifted from French to British, fought alongside British in American Revolution and War of 1812 instead of the Americans - “Land is life” - related to the topic of genocide - Settler colonialism is a genocidal policy - “People don’t just hand over their land and children without a fight” - Indigenous view land as sacred, settlers view it as profit - “Thunderstick” as guns - shows differing worldviews, takes away craftsman ship and hunting purpose of a weapon to something that is made solely to kill The Last of the Mohicans and Andrew Jackson’s White Republic (Chapter 6) - Jackson’s presidency and gold rush largely contributed to forced removal - Jefferson assimilation: wanted everyone to look, speak, be governed the same Pre-US and Early US Federal Indian Policy - Section 2 Apply → basic terminology, native identity, American imperialism in Hawaii, Alaska, and US Eras of Federal Indian Policy The Treaty Making Era 1770s-1871 The Removal Era 1820s-1850s Indian Removal: dehumanizing/impersonal term but in reality was very violent Trail of Tears and the Cherokee Nation ○ Oklahoma was the designated “Indian territory” by US ○ Five Civilized Tribes Cherokee  Chickasaw Choctaw Seminole Creek (Muskogee) The “Indian Problem”: US figuring out what to do with Native people to settle land ○ Used warfare to terminate all Indians ○ Assimilation into an indistinct “other” racial hierarchy that is closer to whiteness but still different Thomas Jefferson: “push war into the heart of their country”, “never cease pursuing them while one of them remained on this side of the Mississippi” -1776 Andrew Jackson: architect of Trail of Tears, general of Indian Wars ○ Natives responded by war, fleeing, used US legal system MARSHALL TRILOGY: set of 3 supreme court cases that are foundation of Indian law ○ Chief justice John Marshall, related to Cherokee nation 1. Johnson v. McIntosh 1823 - land dispute, decide whether or not land bought by US citizens without government permission is really their property or if it belongs to US still, US won because they inherited doctrine of discovery rights after winning the Amer. Rev. Doctrine of Discovery: comes from Columbus that Europeans could claim lands from discovery if people there weren’t fit to own in terms of their government Tribal Right to Occupancy: can live there unless negotiated otherwise through the federal government treaties ○ Indian Removal Act of 1830: president had sole power to grant tribes access to land west of Mississippi river, each tribe had own treaty of removal, offer money and move assistance, threats if no compliance 2. Cherokee v. Georgia 1831 - county in Georgia instead of native territory, no ruling because it shouldn’t have been brought to supreme court due to inherent sovereignty of cherokee nation that wasn’t true instead they are ○ “domestic, dependent nations”, under protection and dependence of US by signing treaties ○ Retained internal sovereignty only (within tribes) 3. Worcester v. Georgia 1832 - whether georgia had right to go on cherokee lands and remove indians as a state and not federal government ○ Ruling: states do not have jurisdiction over tribal lands  Treaty of New Echota 1835: cherokee removal treaty that lead to trail of tears Northern Indian removal ○ New York Indians Stockbridge Munsee Mohicans: praying own converted to Christianity, founded in 1730s in MA Brothertown: praying town, moved around new england due to threats, Oneida: signed agreement with stockbridge and brothertown to give them some land to stay on that would be safer Signed treaty with US that got rid of 5 million acres of land, left with 300,000 acres ○ 1821-22 Treaties of Green Bay (Ho-Chunk, Menominee, Oneida, Stockbridge, Brothertown) - thought wrong people made the decision and wasn’t in agreement with what tribes had decided ○ 1838 establishment of Oneida and Stockbridge reservations - forced removal Asked for private lands owned by Brothertown instead of a reservation ○ Treaties of Prairie Du Chien: Ho-Chunk forced to sign removal treaties and land cessions after helping Blackhawk Always found ways to return home through purchases that are federally recognized Week 6 Readings Treuer, “What were federal residential boarding schools?”, pp.190-194 - Removal of indian children from their homes to better instruct them on english and american culture, less about education - Superintendent said goal was to “kill the Indian in him, in order to save the man” - Clothes burned, hair cut, can’t speak tribal languages, half day working in fields, malnutrition, disease, sexual assault, violence, abuse, 3,000-5,000 children died between 1870 and 1996 - Came back with more social dysfunction at reservations, 160 of remaining 180 tribal languages are likely to go extinct in the next 30 years Treuer “What was the historical relationship between Christian missionaries and Native people?”, pp. 37-39 - Europeans had three strategies: 1) genocide 2) removal 3) assimilation - Wanted to erase all previous culture and beliefs and adopt their own - Natives believed missionaries would only care about them if they gave up their beliefs  - A lot of Natives did convert to christianity - Some missionaries advocated for treaties to be upheld by US, gave charity in hard times Treuer “What is allotment?”, pp. 135-136 - Mid 1800s to 1933 - Took reservations held in trust for shared use of all tribal members and split it up for individual tribal members to own - “Surplus” of land remaining sold to settlers and private companies, homesteading - Profits from surplus paid for assimilation programs for American Indian peoples - Wanted to open reservation land to timber, mineral, and land speculators and settlers - Indians weren’t supposed to sell their allotments for 25 years but Whites broke the law - Dawes Act amendments resulted in Natives keeping less than 10% of their reservations - Red Lake and Menominee reservations avoided allotment - Allotment was the means by which ⅔ of the overall reservation tribal land base was lost Dunbar-Ortiz, “Greed is Good,” pp. 157-161 - General Allotment Act of 1887: policy of assimilation by Senator Henry Dawes, reduced Indigenous land base by half, increased impoverishment, gave US more control - Curtis Act of 1898: got rid of 5 sovereign nations and mandated allotment of their lands - Cherokee traditionalist Redbird Smith and Muscogee Creeks resisted, jailed or killed - 1907 half of all federal reservations privatized - 1934 Indian Reorganization Act stopped allotment but no one got their land back or compensated - Hopi Nation had partial success resisting allotment with a letter and finally causing Wasighnton authorities to give up - Pueblos got federal government protected trust status using US court of private land claims - Characters like “the last Indian” or “vanishing Indian” portrayed to children in films NABS Healing Voices - By 1926, 83% of Indian children were attending boarding schools - These schools are directly responsible for loss of tribal language, cultural resources, ongoing intergenerational trauma - Indian Civilization Fund Act 1819 and Peace Policy 1869 implemented cultural genocide through removal and reprogramming - Killed off buffalo that Indigenous used for sustenance  - First 20 years → 20,000 taken, more than tripled 25 years later to 60,889 by 1925 - National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition (NABS) seeks truth, action, justice, support for survivors and descendants - Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) lawsuit against Canadian government → 94 calls to action - Human right not to be subjected to forced assimilation or destruction of culture - BIA addressed in 2000, NCAI called or presidential acknowledgement in 2008, Obama signed general apology that wasn’t publicized/received by anyone specific - BIA started Indian Adoption Project 1958, eradicate culture and family systems, social workers convinced parents to sign away parental rights and place them with a white family - Indian Child Welfare Act 1978 to try and stop adoptions, native kids still in foster care at higher rates per capita than any other ethnic group - 2014 Native Youth Report, native youth suicide and PTSD 3 times higher than general public - Indian Education Act 1972 etc. helped self-determination of native futures in education - Generational trauma increases development of PTSD, depression, Type 2 diabetes, addiction, suicide, epigenetic markers change - 1819 Civilization Fund Act let christians run schools - Restorative Justice: violations of people and relationships, not statute definitions and sentencing guidelines, offenders take responsibility, survivor’s narrative being heard - Truth Report petition by NABS Indian Boarding Schools, Before and After: A Personal Introduction - Importance of storytelling to see how and why - “Beneficent paternalism of a caring guardian….domesticating and neutralizing the threat of Native difference” - Congressional powers were unchecked, entitled to institutionalization in the name of civilization - Tom Torlino before and after photos: persuaded they tell some truth about transformative boarding schools, but it actually propelled a largely mythical story - Instead of welcoming natives into US society as equals, they reinforced racial ideologies and categories of otherness (darkened and lightened photo composition for appearance of skin color changing) Discussion 10/9/2024  - The video changes the way people view US history by uncovering the harsh truths of federal Indian boarding schools run by Catholic churches. This is something the government/church leaders are hesitant to do because it tarnishes the perception of their institutions or ideologies. The video relates to what we’ve discussed in class this week because Native people are telling their stories of their time at these boarding schools and just want their voices to be heard about the trauma they were subjected to in hope of a resulting reprimanding of those responsible. Reservation Era 1850s-1887 Disclaimer: recent histories, caused intergenerational trauma, acknowledging violence is not the same as perpetuating victimization narrative, agency and resistance existed in these spaces to protect themselves Assimilation in native context: minority group resembling dominant society ○ Inherently primitive → convert ot christianity and educate them so they behave like civilized Europeans ○ Solution to the “Indian Problem” ○ Change political governance, familial structures, relationship to land Schooling as a Colonial Tool: christianizing, conforming to European standards through schooling, separating white and native colleges Schooling as an Indigenous Tool of Resistance: e.g. speaking Lakota language at Harvard graduation, send kids to school so they can learn to speak the language of treaty negotiations, American laws, get American jobs (Cherokee) Education vs Schooling: learning through experience or nontraditional practices, formal schooling classroom structure Histories of Indian Education ○ Christian schooling - pre US into 20th century ○ Federal Indian schooling - 1820s-1970s ○ Federal Indian Boarding schools - away from reservation land ○ BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs) schools - day schools, allowed to go home ○ Tribal and community schools Federal Indian Education and Treaties: schooling on reservation land was written into treaties, wanted exposure to American schooling to help with their future Federal Indian Education and The Indian Wars: fly white flags to show friendliness but still slaughter of 250 women/children/elderly of Cheyenne tribe in Sand Creek Massacre, military prisoners  ○ Colonel Richard Henry Platt: education was the best way to solve Indian problem, militaristic/regimented education used on children, “kill the indian, save the man”, started boarding school system Carlisle Indian Industrial School 1879-1918 ○ Parents sent kids to be fed and clothed, saw as an opportunity, or were forced to by withholding money ○ Hair cut, uniforms, rigid schedules, manual labor to live called education, required to speak English, punished or beaten if any expression of native culture was seen, malnourished, disease, sexual abuse, runaways ○ Parents sent letters or camped outside school to demand to see their children, which they were promised would happen but didn’t ○ Death count for schools is likely lower than reality ○ Trauma: inability to connect with family members Federal Indian Industrial Schools: funded by government, militaristic ○ Wisconsin: St. Joseph’s, St. Mary’s, Oneida, Lac du Flambeau, Tomah Allotment and Assimilation 1887-1934 Another solution to the Indian Problem (warfare, removal, reservations, containment camps) Assimilation does not mean use of modern technology - policy decision, way to devalue and degrade indigenous lifeways Assimilation Policy: systematic conversion of communal indian land and cultural practices, fit into market capitalism and liberal democracy, idea of collectivity President Grant’s Peace Policy 1868 ○ End Indian Wars ○ Natives in 2 categories: “friendlies” (no warfare) and “hostiles” (should be killed) ○ Solidification of reservation boundaries - those who leave are hostile and are allowed to be killed ○ Reform and end corruption at the Office of Indian Affairs (BIA) Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA): handle treaties, decide how Indian policy is enacted on tribal lands, war department → department of interior, individuals used position to steal money from tribes and leverage control of resources on tribal lands, illegally lease land, Grant fired corrupt people and replaced with Quakers 1871 Indian Appropriations Act: ends treaty making between US and Indians  Land-Based Assimilation Policy: natives aren’t civilized/don’t know how to use land properly (no agriculture, no land use practices, communal land ownership) ○ Yeoman Farmer: private land ownership, nuclear families, act as individuals not connected to a collective tribal government, use agriculture as civilizing tool ○ Open native lands to use as American settlements, homesteading, privatization Removals and Reservations: limit mobility across homelands, surveillance of native people, see if policies are being practiced, education implementation ○ General Allotment Act of 1887: “Dawes Severalty Act”, privatizing reservation lands, each tribal member gets a designated segment of land in acres, held in trust by government for 25 years so no one could sell/exploit it, then owner could sell Allotment: first attempt of a national plan to privatize all reservation lands in the country ○ Disrupting Indigenous collective land ownership through separated, private land ownings ○ Opening up “surplus” lands - sold to Americans for homesteading/companies, educational for natives living next to allotments (learn how to farm) 160 acres per household maximum for natives, sectioned per child ○ Establishing tribal roles: blood quantum → competency (full blood couldn’t make decision regarding their land) ○ Checkerboarding: allotted tribal lands next to surplus lands sold to non-Natives Marshall Trilogy: federal government controlled land not states, natives can’t sell because it’s not theirs Indian Territory of the Old Northwest: hope of removing indigenous peoples in Great Lakes → Minnesota ○ Removal of Ho-Chunk and Menominee Nations in 1830s, and all Ojibwe bands Sandy Lake held Ojibwe people, few stayed ○ White Earth Reservation 1867: series of removals of Ojibwe people in Northern Minnesota, routinely fought removal efforts, moved the bands that signed treaty first, took 20 years to get people to move ○ “White Earth Tragedy”: by 1909, 80% of lands had passed out of Ojibwe hands 1889 Nelson Act - everyone had to take allotment at White Earth 1904 Clapp Rider and Steenerson Act and 1906 Burke Act - open unallotted forest land, mixed bloods could immediately sell (no waiting 25 years)  ○ Dawes Rolls and Blood Rolls: White Earth fraud → need for improved rolls 1910-20 sent scientists to analyze blood quantums ○ White Earth Land Settlement Act 1985: federal investigations → titles were held by non-Native people → clear up land titles and buy back allotments Indigenous Resistance to Allotments: direct refusal (e.g. Red Lake Nation), subsistence economics Indigenous Resistance to Assimilation: challenged removal policies, open schools Week 7 Readings Treuer “If Natives in the United States have their own nations, how did they become American citizens?” pp. 129-130 - Allotment → US citizenship - 1918 male Native veterans could apply for citizenship - 1924 Indian Citizenship Act: all citizens, but can’t vote in some states - Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca tribes rejected US citizenship Treuer “What’s the Indian Reorganization Act?” pp. 139-140 - 1934, changed role of Office of Indian Affairs from an supervisory agency that managed major parts of Indian governments to an advisory agency - Pros: ended allotment, gave way to modern tribal governments, self-determination, returned tribal lands to stable federal trust - Cons: US Department of Interior had control still, little protections, merged autonomous nations into one government Treuer “What is termination?”, pp. 145-146 - Terminate political existence of tribes from most assimilated to least - Not seen as a punishment but as proof of successful assimilation - More assimilated = more likely to be only American and nothing else - Menominee lost forest harvesting operation and land and became poor - 1970s-80s Menominee, Klamath, Coquille, and Catawba tribes were reinstated after years of protest, 109 terminated tribes never reinstated Treuer “Why do so many Indians live in urban areas today?” pp. 142-144 - Reservations have an unemployment rate of over 50%, seeking more opportunities - High rate of marriage to non-Natives - Less than 4% of land owned by reservations (e.g. Leech Lake Minnesota) - Enrollment criteria: twice as many self-identifying Indians than enrolled tribal members - Official relocation policy in 1950s by US government to move Indians off reservations  - One way transportation, rental assistance for first month, brochure advertising - Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Chicago, Denver, Oakland gained Indian populations - Racial barrier to getting good jobs, became poorer than on reservations - Permanent change Treuer “What is life like for urban Indians today?” pp. 144 - Half of enrolled tribal members live off of reservations - Try to keep connections to homelands, but adapt to urban environments (harder to hunt, fish, farm, etc) - Better job and education opportunities being created on reservations now Loew, "Urban Indians," pp. 159-172 - World War II jobs, relocation, and termination policies drove Natives to urban areas - Numbers underreported due to irregular housing, confidentiality, mobility to and from reservation and employment - American Indian Movement (AIM): mobilization of urban Indians around socioeconomic issues and reconnecting them with reservations in 1960s, established Indian Community School of Milwaukee - Reagan Administration reduced Indian housing funds by 96%, urban Indian health care by 50%, economic development and job expenditures by 45% in 1982-83 - Higher rates of liver disease, obesity, alcohol-related injury - American Indian Chamber of Commerce of Wisconsin (AICCW): helped with indigenous businesses, educational scholarships - Indian Summer Festival: increases visibility of urban Indians who embrace both traditional and contemporary identity Dunbar-Ortiz, "New Deal to Termination" and "Civil Rights Era Begins," pp. 170-177 New Deal to Termination - 1930s New Deal: acknowledgement of self-determination - John Collier US commissioner of Indian affairs: anti-assimilation, drafted IRA - IRA: ended allotment, government purchased and restored remaining land, formation of tribal governments, didn’t require nations to accept terms - Navajo Nation rejected IRA: killed sheep livestock, pushed by Collier - 1946 Indian Claims Commission and Court: legitimize the prior illegal federal taking of Indigenous treaty lands - Between 1946-1952, 370 petitions representing 850 claims were filed on behalf of tribal nations  - Settlement was limited monetary compensation, barred restitution or acquiring of new land - Validation was useful for strengthening sovereignty and pursuing restitution - 1953 Termination Act: free tribes from federal control and supervision, end trust protection and transfer payments agreed to in treaties - Same man who started Japanese internment camps began the implementation of termination (Dillon S. Meyer) - US government had no constitutional or legal authority to get rid of recognized nations’ inherent sovereignty or territorial boundaries (but made it impossible for them to exercise sovereignty and eliminated identity through assimilation) - 1956 Indian Relocation Act: used BIA funding to provide housing and employment in urban areas for Natives who moved there - San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, Phoenix, Dallas, Cleveland Civil Rights Era Begins - National Congress of American Indians (NCAI): 1944, members of diverse nations came together to resist termination and government ceased enforcement in 1961, restitution movement through court cases - Native organizing developed within the context of a nationalistic, anticommunist ideology intensified by Cold War in 1950s, attacked self-determination and racism worsened - War with Japan and Korea, Japanese American internment replaced Asian workers with Mexican migrant workers - Over 1 million Mexican immigrants deported, illegal search and arrest of US citizens of Mexican heritage - Native American rape and detention in reservation border towns by citizens and law enforcement - African American segregation and discrimination in the South, NAACP fought for public school desegregation in 1954 - White Citizens’ Councils accused civil rights activist of communist influence, bombed and burned Black churches and blamed it on the communists - CIA overthrow of Guatemalan elected officials who were heading the Inter-American Indian Institute - Covert counterinsurgency: secret CIA-led military operations in Iran, Guatemala, Laos, Indonesia, the Congo, Greece, and Chile (Hmong soldiers in Laos)  - The revolution in Cuba for Indigenous peoples of Latin America resonated with Native American activists seeking self-determination in the North IRA: creation of modern tribal governments Indian Citizenship Act: granted full US citizenship to natives Termination: stripping of tribal sovereignty Relocation: moving Indians to cities Indian Reorganization Act 1934-1940s WWI and Native Service: ~12,000 Natives served ○ Navajo language send coded messages that Japanese couldn’t decipher ○ Choctaw men hired to create and translate code ○ Native nations have lots of respect for people who served/protected, “warriors” ○ Also worked in wartime industries, red cross, etc. ○ Weren’t American citizens but wanted to protect tribal sovereignty in case US fell apart Society of American Indians (SAI): e.g. Carlos Montezuma, founded in 1911, political organization with diverse intertribal representatives, elevate and protect native rights ○ Define what tribal sovereignty looked like - claim self determination and self governance in a place with boarding schools, allotment, etc ○ Native representation in pop culture - avoid dehumanizing misrepresentation, lead to allyship to protect rights ○ American Indian citizenship in US - courts, voting in federal and state elections ○ Annual meetings on college campuses ○ Dissolved in 1923, disagreement among leadership ○ 1st inter-tribal organizations for collective representative voice for the future Indian Citizenship Act 1924: granted full American citizenship to Natives, due to SAI and Indian military service The Meriam Report 1928: survey and conditions of the Indians in the US ○ Discusses boarding schools and allotment ○ Asked questions and observed to collect data into a report ○ “The Problem of Indian Administration” - it failed, allotment didn’t work and caused poverty, shift in how government treated Indian policy John Collier: head commissioner of BIA ○ Reverse assault on Indian communities, disagreed with allotment ○ Boarding schools helped provide opportunities ○ Assimilationist - but wanted Natives to have more say  Had to assimilate their culture in order to survive in US Indian Reorganization Act 1934 (Wheeler-Howard Act) ○ Officially ended allotment by terminating the Dawes Act ○ Consolidated and returned surplus land into community units held by tribes (and in trust by federal government) ○ Training for vocational trades and land management ○ Given money for reservation schools, healthcare services offered ○ Modern tribal governments and constitutions Tribal nations accept or reject IRA - 174 accepted, 78 rejected → 135 constitutions drafted Draft constitutions: approved by majority vote and sent to Secretary of Interior Create smaller American democracies in tribes Established membership requirements/enrollment processes - blood quantums Elect tribal councils ○ Opposition to IRA: stripped of federal recognition or negotiation of alternate form of recognized governance E.g. Navajo Livestock Reduction Act → Navajo rejected IRA Red Lake rejected IRA, follow hereditary chief leader’s policy Minnesota Chippewa Tribes: group of bands minus Red Lake IRA Tribal Governance: 574 federally recognized nations ○ Elected tribal councils ○ Tribally-specific laws ○ Tribal courts ○ First responders and emergency services Termination and Relocation 1940s-1970s Mid-20th Century “Indian Problem”: native people are not on par with modern American society - poor, uneducated ○ Solution: assimilation by termination Native military service in WW2 → US citizenship Termination: 1940s-1960s abolish native access to federal indian services, land holdings, recognized sovereignty Compensation: settlement claims for loss of land  ○ Indian Claims Commission 1946: compensation for stolen lands, sever legal responsibility of federal government ○ Zimmerman Plan 1947: blueprint for termination legislation, 3 categories of readiness for termination - immediate withdrawal of BIA services, withdrawal within 10 years, “indefinite” time before readiness - has to do with if tribe could recover financially post withdrawal ○ Pro-Termination Sentiment: Sen. Watkins likened a reservation to segregation and termination to the emancipation proclamation ○ Dillon S. Meyer: fully supported termination Termination: elimination of tribal status (federal recognition) ○ House Concurrent Resolution 108: 1953, selected 13 tribes for termination, slotted for termination but each tribe needed individual legislation for terminating ○ Public Law 280: 1953, people reliant on state services, removal of indian police/courts → transferred legal jurisdiction from federal government to certain states (Alaska, WI, CA, Oregon, MN, NB) ○ Consequences: 109 tribes terminated between 1953-1966, 1 mil+ acres of land lost, lake of access to statewide/federal healthcare, education, employment ○ Resistance: Menominee Nation - targeted in Zimmerman plan, HCR 108, and Menominee Termination Act 1954, lost all federal recognition 1961, they “should be fine” because of lumber business, Menominee Reservation → Menominee County, Determination and Unity for Menominee Stockholders (DRUMS) Ada Deer: social worker, assistant secretary of Indian affairs, taught at UW, wrote a book Menominee Restoration Act 1973 ○ Klamath Termination: wealthiest tribe to one of the poorest, lost all land, had federal recognition restored through congress lobbying, reservation land never returned, remove dams from Klamath river to restore river and keep connection ○ National Congress of American Indians (NCAI): 1944, protect Indian rights, opponent of termination, supporter of tribal restoration fights Relocation: voluntary, coercive, or heavily incentivized migration from reservations to cities (urban Indians) ○ Navajo-Hopi Law 1950: offered relocation to LA or Salt Lake City ○ BIA Voluntary Relocation Program 1952: expanded, money to go to specific cities ○ Indian Relocation Act 1956: undesignated relocation cities, constant contact with relocation officers/check-ins, promised better schools, higher wage pay, good housing, vocational training/higher education ○ Realities: no promises fulfilled, more poor than before, couldn’t keep in contact with officers, worst parts of cities/no one would rent to them, discrimination in schools, fired from jobs