Consciousness Lesson 6.1 PDF

CHAPTER 6 CONSCIOUSNESS Lesson 6.1 The Many Faces of Awareness Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the session, students should have: 1. Distinguished the difference between disordered states of consciousness a...

CHAPTER 6 CONSCIOUSNESS Lesson 6.1 The Many Faces of Awareness Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the session, students should have: 1. Distinguished the difference between disordered states of consciousness and altered states of consciousness; 2. Described how hypnosis and meditation works; and, 3. Explained the effects of the major classification of drugs. Abstraction Every science has concepts so fundamental they are nearly impossible to define. Biologists agree on what is alive but not on precisely what life is. In physics, matter and energy elude simple definition. To psychologists, consciousness is similarly a fundamental yet slippery concept. States of Consciousness To be conscious means to be aware. Consciousness consists of your awareness of external events in the environment around you, as well as your awareness of your mental processes, including thoughts, memories, and feelings about your experiences and yourself (Morin, 2006; Robinson, 2008). Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of yourself and the world around you. This awareness is subjective and unique to you. If you can describe something you are experiencing in words, then it is part of your consciousness. Your conscious experiences are constantly shifting and changing. For example, in one moment, you may be focused on reading this paragraph. Your consciousness may then shift to the memory of a conversation you had earlier with a classmate. Next, you might notice how uncomfortable your chair is, or maybe you are mentally planning dinner. To begin, let us examine the distinction between disorders of consciousness and altered states of consciousness. In subsequent sections of this chapter, we will move on to look at several different ways that people achieve altered states of consciousness, including hypnosis, meditation, drug use, and sleep. Disorders of Consciousness We spend most of our lives in waking consciousness, a state of clear, organized alertness. In waking consciousness, we perceive times, places, and events as real and can respond to external stimuli. But many other states of consciousness are possible. For example, brain injury can result in anything from a short-lived disorientation to a disorder of consciousness—a long-term lack of consciousness and responsiveness (Monti, 2012; Schnakers & Laureys, 2012). Disorders of consciousness have traditionally been difficult to accurately diagnose (Singh et al., 2013). You simply can’t ask someone in a coma—a state of total unresponsiveness—if he or she can hear you or feel pain. But does the lack of responsiveness mean that a person is brain dead (De Tanti et al., 2016)? In one study, normal individuals and patients in a persistent vegetative state—a longer-term waking state without any signs of awareness—were administered a mildly painful stimulus. Normal individuals consciously reported feeling pain, while vegetative patients did not, as expected. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans revealed brain activity in the midbrain, thalamus, and somatosensory cortex of both normal individuals and vegetative patients. However, only the normal individuals in this study showed activity in the frontal areas of the cortex, implying that these brain regions must be functional in order for someone to have a conscious experience of pain (Laureys et al., 2002). Altered States of Consciousness Many other states of conscious also differ from normal awareness, including states of consciousness related to fatigue, delirium, hypnosis, drugs, and euphoria (Chalmers, 2010). Everyone experiences at least some altered states, such as sleep, dreaming, and daydreaming. In everyday life, changes in consciousness may even accompany long-distance running, listening to music, making love, or other circumstances. How are altered states distinguished from normal awareness? During an altered state of consciousness (ASC), changes occur in the quality and pattern of mental activity. Typically, distinct shifts happen in our perceptions, emotions, memories, time sense, thoughts, feelings of self-control, and suggestibility (Hohwy & Fox, 2012). Definitions aside, most people know when they have experienced an ASC. In fact, heightened self-awareness is an important feature of many ASCs (Revonsuo, Kallio, & Sikka, 2009). What are some of the other causes of ASCs? One dramatic example is the regular consumption of a mind-altering potion called ayahuasca. Considered a psychedelic sacrament by members of Uniao do Vegetal (UDV), a Brazilian religion, twice-monthly consumption of ayahuasca is believed to foster a deeper connection with nature, improving physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being. Like Buddhists engaging in meditation practices, Turkish whirling dervishes entranced by their twirling dance, or New Zealand Maori priests performing nightlong rituals to communicate with the mythical period that the Aborigines call “Dreamtime,” the ritual use of ayahuasca is meant to cleanse the mind and body. When they are especially intense, such experiences can bring altered awareness and personal revelation (de Rios & Grob, 2005). In addition to the cultural meanings of altered states, we could add sensory overload (a rave, Mardi Gras crowd, or mosh pit), monotonous stimulation (such as “highway hypnotism” on long drives), unusual physical conditions (high fever, hyperventilation, dehydration, sleep loss, near-death experiences), restricted sensory input (extended periods of isolation), and many other possibilities. Let’s continue with a more detailed look at two interesting altered states, hypnosis and meditation, before turning our attention to sleep, dreams, and drug use in the sections that follow. Hypnosis and Meditation Many people are familiar with hypnosis and meditation, even if they don’t have any personal experience with them. Though they are both considered altered states of consciousness, there are some important differences between them. Let’s take a closer look at each one. Hypnosis The term hypnosis comes from Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep, although the similarity between hypnosis and sleep is superficial. Hypnosis is a condition of focused attention and increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist–subject relationship. People under hypnosis are in a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. How is hypnosis done? Could I be hypnotized against my will? Hypnotists use many different methods. Still, all techniques encourage a person to (1) focus attention on what is being said, (2) relax and feel tired, (3) “let go” and accept suggestions easily, and (4) use a vivid imagination (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). Basically, you must cooperate to become hypnotized. What does it feel like to be hypnotized? Personal experiences vary widely. You might have mild feelings of floating, sinking, anesthesia, or separation from your body. A key element in hypnosis is the basic suggestion effect—a tendency of hypnotized persons to carry out suggested actions as if they were involuntary. Hypnotized persons feel like their actions and experiences are automatic—they seem to happen without effort. Contrary to popular misconceptions, hypnotized people generally remain in control of their behavior and are aware of what is going on. For instance, most people will not act out hypnotic suggestions that they consider immoral or repulsive, such as disrobing in public or harming someone (Kirsch & Lynn, 1995). Can everyone be hypnotized? About 75 percent of people can be hypnotized, but only 40 percent will be good hypnotic participants. People who are imaginative and prone to fantasy are often highly responsive to hypnosis (Hoeft et al., 2012). People who are readily hypnotized are also easily absorbed while reading books or listening to music, becoming unaware of what is happening around them, and they often spend an unusual amount of time daydreaming. But people who lack these traits also may be hypnotized. These people, then, show a high ability to concentrate and to become completely absorbed in what they are doing (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001; Rubichi et al., 2005; Benham et al., 2006). If you are willing to be hypnotized, chances are good that you could be. What can (and cannot) be achieved with hypnosis? Hypnosis has been used successfully to solve practical human problems. In fact, psychologists working in many different areas have found hypnosis to be a reliable, effective tool. It has been applied to a number of areas, including the following: Controlling pain. Patients suffering from chronic pain may be given the suggestion, while hypnotized, that their pain is gone or reduced. They also may be taught to hypnotize themselves to relieve pain or gain a sense of control over their symptoms. Hypnosis has proved to be particularly useful during childbirth and dental procedures (Mehl-Madrona, 2004; Hammond, 2007). Reducing smoking. Although it hasn’t been successful in stopping drug and alcohol abuse, hypnosis sometimes helps people stop smoking through hypnotic suggestions that the taste and smell of cigarettes are unpleasant (Elkins et al., 2006; Fuller, 2006). Treating psychological disorders. Hypnosis sometimes is used during treatment for psychological disorders. For example, it may be employed to heighten relaxation, reduce anxiety, increase expectations of success, or modify self-defeating thoughts (Zarren & Eimer, 2002; Iglesias, 2005; Golden, 2006). Assisting in law enforcement. Witnesses and victims are sometimes better able to recall the details of a crime when hypnotized. In one often-cited case, a witness to the kidnapping of a group of California schoolchildren was placed under hypnosis and was able to recall all but one digit of the license number on the kidnapper’s vehicle. However, hypnotic recollections may also be inaccurate, just as other recollections are often inaccurate. Consequently, the legal status of hypnosis is unresolved (Whitehouse et al., 2005; Kazar, 2006; Knight & Meyer, 2007). Improving athletic performance. Athletes sometimes turn to hypnosis to improve their performance. For example, some baseball players have used hypnotism to increase their concentration when batting, with considerable success (Lindsay, Maynard, & Thomas, 2005; Grindstaff & Fisher, 2006). Meditation When traditional practitioners of the ancient Eastern religion of Zen Buddhism want to achieve greater spiritual insight, they turn to a technique that has been used for centuries to alter their state of consciousness. This technique is called meditation. Meditation is a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. In general, meditation heightens awareness and produces relaxation by interrupting the typical flow of thoughts, worries, and analysis. Meditation takes two major forms. Mindfulness meditation is “open,” or expansive. The aim is to observe your own thoughts, feelings, and sensations without reacting to them. Ultimately, the goal is to achieve a total, nonjudgmental awareness of the world (Hölzel et al., 2011). An example is becoming fully consciousness while walking in the wilderness with a quiet and receptive mind.  In contrast, concentrative meditation techniques such as transcendental meditation involve attending to a single focal point, such as an object, a thought, or your own breathing. The basic idea is to sit still and quietly focus on some external object or on a repetitive internal stimulus, such as your own breathing or humming. Alternatively, you can silently repeat a mantra (a word used as the focus of attention in concentrative meditation). Typical mantras are smooth, flowing sounds that are easily repeated. A widely used mantra is the word om. A mantra also could be any pleasant word or a phrase from a familiar song, poem, or prayer. If other thoughts arise as you repeat a mantra, just return attention to it as often as necessary to maintain meditation. How is meditation done? Anyone can meditate by following a few simple procedures. The fundamentals include sitting in a quiet room with the eyes closed, breathing deeply and rhythmically, and repeating a word or sound—such as the word one—over and over. Practiced twice a day for 20 minutes, the technique is effective in bringing about relaxation (Benson et al., 1994; Aftanas & Golosheykin, 2005). What are the effects of meditation? After meditation, people report feeling thoroughly relaxed. They sometimes relate that they have gained new insights into themselves and the problems they are facing. For example, cancer patients who are taught mindfulness meditation have lower levels of distress and a greater sense of well-being (Jones et al., 2013). Similarly, being mindful makes it easier to quit smoking (Brewer et al., 2011). Such benefits apply to healthy people, too. The long-term practice of meditation may even improve health because of the biological changes it produces. For example, during meditation, oxygen usage decreases, heart rate and blood pressure decline, and brain-wave patterns change (Arambula et al., 2001; Barnes et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2007). Drug-Altered Consciousness One common way to alter human consciousness is to administer a psychoactive drug—a substance capable of altering attention, emotion, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, or perception. Many psychoactive drugs can be placed on a scale ranging from stimulation to depression. In general, psychoactive drug use falls into two categories. Using a drug to address a particular issue, such as taking a painkiller for a headache, a cup of coffee to stay awake, or an antidepressant to treat depression is instrumental use. In contrast, recreational users focus on experiencing the psychoactive effects of a drug. Getting high on heroin, even though you are not in physical pain, is an example. The term drug abuse is usually reserved for cases when drug misuse causes some sort of harm. Many recreational users can be classified as experimental users (short-term use based on curiosity) or social- recreational users (occasional social use for pleasure or relaxation). While these may be examples of misuse, harm is more typically associated with intensive use (daily use with elements of dependence) or compulsive use (intense use and extreme dependence), in which case the person may be diagnosed with a substance use and addictive disorder (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2016). Reasons for Drug Abuse Drug abuse can stem from many causes, three of which seem to be very important. 1. Coping Efforts. Many abusers turn to drugs in a self-defeating attempt to cope with life. All the frequently abused drugs produce immediate feelings of pleasure. The negative consequences follow much later. This combination of immediate pleasure and delayed punishment allows abusers to feel good on demand. In time, of course, most of the pleasure goes out of drug abuse and the abuser’s problems get worse. But if an abuser merely feels better (however briefly) after taking a drug, drug taking can become compulsive (Wood & Rünger, 2016). 2. Effects on the Brain. Nearly all addictive drugs stimulate the brain’s reward circuitry, producing feelings of pleasure (Kalat, 2016; Prus, 2014). In particular, addictive drugs stimulate a brain region called the nucleus accumbens to release dopamine (DOPE-ahmeen), a neurotransmitter  that results in intensified feelings of pleasure. As a result, the reward pathway signals, “That felt good. Let’s do it again. Let’s remember exactly how we did it.” This creates a compulsion to repeat the drug experience. It’s the hook that eventually snares the addict (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2014). At the same time, addiction may damage the prefrontal cortex, the brain system involved in self- control (Everitt & Robbins, 2016). Adolescents, it should be noted, are especially susceptible to addiction because the prefrontal brain systems that restrain their risk taking are not as mature as those that reward pleasure seeking (Boyd, Harris, & Knight, 2012). 3. Dependency. A third reason that drug abuse is so common is that taking psychoactive drugs tends to create dependencies. Once you get started, it can be very difficult to stop (Calabria et al., 2010). Drug dependence falls into two broad categories (Maisto, Galizio, & Connors, 2015). When a person compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily comfort, a physical dependence (addiction) exists. Addiction occurs most often with drugs that cause withdrawal symptoms— the physical illness and discomfort that follows removal of a drug. Withdrawal from drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates can cause violent, flulike symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills, sweating, and cramps. Addiction is often accompanied by a drug tolerance—a progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug. This leads users to take larger and larger doses to get the desired effect. Persons who develop a psychological dependence feel that a drug is necessary to maintain their comfort or well-being. Usually, they intensely crave the drug and its rewarding qualities. Psychological dependence can be just as powerful as physical addiction. That’s why some psychologists define addiction as any repetitively compulsive pattern. By this definition, a person who has lost control over drug use, for whatever reason, is addicted. Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away A stimulant, or upper, is a substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system. Some of the most common uppers are amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, and nicotine. Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants. Some common street names for amphetamines are speed, bennies, dexies, amp, and uppers. These drugs were once widely prescribed for weight loss or depression. Today, the main instrumental medical use of amphetamines is to treat childhood hyperactivity and overdoses of depressant drugs. Large doses of amphetamines can cause nausea, vomiting, extremely high blood pressure, fatal heart attacks, and disabling strokes. It is important to realize that amphetamines speed up the use of the body’s resources; they do not magically supply energy. After an amphetamine binge, people suffer from crippling fatigue, depression, confusion, uncontrolled irritability, and aggression. Repeated amphetamine use damages the brain. Amphetamines also can cause amphetamine psychosis, a loss of contact with reality. Affected users have paranoid delusions that someone is out to get them. Acting on these delusions, they may become violent, resulting in suicide, self-injury, or injury to others (Scott, 2012). Cocaine (also known as coke, snow, blow, snuff, and flake) is a powerful central nervous system stimulant extracted from the leaves of the coca plant. Cocaine produces feelings of alertness, euphoria, well- being, power, boundless energy, and pleasure (Julien, 2011). Casual or first-time users risk having convulsions, a heart attack, or a stroke. Cocaine increases the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine. Norepinephrine arouses the brain, and dopamine produces a “rush” of pleasure. This combination is so powerfully rewarding that cocaine users run a high risk of becoming compulsive abusers (Ridenour et al., 2005) Caffeine is the most frequently used psychoactive drug in the world. Many people have a hard time starting a day (or writing another paragraph) without a cup of coffee or tea because caffeine suppresses drowsiness and increases alertness, especially when combined with sugar (Adan & Serra-Grabulosa, 2010; Smith, Christopher, & Sutherland, 2013). Caffeine is found in tea, many soft drinks (especially colas and so- called “energy drinks”), chocolate, and cocoa. Thousands of nonprescription drugs also contain caffeine, including stay-awake pills, cold remedies, and many name-brand aspirin products. Physically, caffeine can cause sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and hand tremors (Nehlig, 2004). Caffeine stimulates the brain by blocking chemicals that normally inhibit or slow nerve activity (Maisto, Galizio, & Connors, 2015). Next to caffeine and alcohol, nicotine is the most widely used psychoactive drug (Julien, 2011). A natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco, nicotine is so toxic that it is sometimes used to kill insects! In large doses, it causes stomach pain, vomiting and diarrhea, cold sweats, dizziness, confusion, and muscle tremors. In very large doses, nicotine may cause convulsions, respiratory failure, and death. A burning cigarette releases a large variety of potent carcinogens (car-SIN-oh-jins: cancer-causing substances). Smoking causes widespread damage to the body, leading to an increased risk of many cancers (such as lung cancer), cardiovascular diseases (such as stroke), respiratory diseases (such as chronic bronchitis), and reproductive disorders (such as decreased fertility). Together, these health risks combine to reduce the life expectancy of the average smoker by 10 to 15 years. Depressants: Down and Out In contrast to the initial effect of stimulants, which is an increase in arousal of the central nervous system, the effect of depressants is to impede the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly. Some of the most common downers are alcohol, barbiturates, and tranquilizers. The most common depressant is alcohol, which is used by more people than is any other drug. As the dose of alcohol increases, however, the depressive effects become more pronounced. People may feel emotionally and physically unstable. They also show poor judgment and may act aggressively. Moreover, memory is impaired, brain processing of spatial information is diminished, and speech becomes slurred and incoherent. Eventually they may fall into a stupor and pass out. If they drink enough alcohol in a short time, they may die of alcohol poisoning (Murphy et al., 1998; Zeigler et al., 2005; Thatcher & Clark, 2006). Binge drinking, defined as downing five or more drinks (four drinks for women) in a short time, is of special concern for adolescents because the brain continues to develop into the early twenties. Research has shown that teenagers and young adults who drink too much may lose as much as 10 percent of their brain power—especially their memory capacity (Brown et al., 2000; Goldstein et al., 2016). Barbiturates are sedative drugs that depress brain activity. Common barbiturates include amobarbital, pentobarbital, secobarbital, and tuinal. On the street, they are known as downers, blue devils, yellow jackets, lows, goofballs, reds, pink ladies, rainbows, or tooies. Frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress, barbiturates produce a sense of relaxation. Yet they too are psychologically and physically addictive and, when combined with alcohol, can be deadly, since such a combination relaxes the muscles of the diaphragm to such an extent that the user stops breathing. Tranquilizers lower anxiety and reduce tension. Doctors prescribe benzodiazepine tranquilizers to alleviate nervousness and stress. Valium is the best-known drug in this family; others are Xanax, Halcion, and Librium. Even at normal dosages, these drugs can cause drowsiness, shakiness, and confusion. When used at too high a dosage or for too long, benzodiazepines are addictive (McKim, 2013). A drug sold under the trade name Rohypnol (ro-HIP-nol) has added to the problem of tranquilizer abuse. Rohypnol is sometimes called the “date rape drug,” because when it is mixed with alcohol, it can prevent victims from resisting sexual assault. Sometimes people who are unknowingly given the drug are so incapacitated that they have no memory of the assault. Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs Although a hallucinogen (hal-LU-sin-oh-jen) is generally a mild stimulant, its main effect is to stimulate perceptions at odds with reality. The most common hallucinogens include LSD, PCP, mescaline, psilocybin, and cannabis. The drug LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide, or acid) is perhaps the best-known hallucinogen. Even when taken in tiny amounts, LSD can produce hallucinations, mystical-type experiences, and psychotic-like disturbances in thinking and perception (Liechti, Dolder, & Schmid, 2016). Two other common hallucinogens are mescaline (peyote) and psilocybin (magic mushrooms, or shrooms). Incidentally, the drug PCP (phencyclidine, or angel dust) can have hallucinogenic effects. However, PCP, which is an anesthetic, also has stimulant and depressant effects. This potent combination can cause extreme agitation, disorientation, violence, and—too often—tragedy. Cannabis is derived from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. Cannabis (also called marijuana, pot, grass, reefer, and MJ), whose active ingredient—tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) consists of the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant. The effects of marijuana vary from person to person, but they typically consist of feelings of euphoria and general well-being. Sensory experiences seem more vivid and intense, and a person’s sense of self-importance seems to grow. Memory may be impaired, causing users to feel pleasantly “spaced out.” In addition, marijuana has several medical uses; it can be used to prevent nausea from chemotherapy, treat some AIDS symptoms, and relieve muscle spasms for people with spinal cord injuries. References