ABM 12 Philosophy Midterms Reviewer PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER COURSE INTRODUCTION MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY Etymologically, the word “philosophy” comes from STUDY OF ALL THINGS two...

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER COURSE INTRODUCTION MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY Etymologically, the word “philosophy” comes from STUDY OF ALL THINGS two Greek words, Philo (to love) and Sophia This sets the distinction between philosophy from (wisdom). other sciences. All other sciences concern themselves With this, the actual meaning of Philosophy is the “love with a particular object of investigation. of wisdom” and in a broad sense, wisdom is the true In short, a philosopher does not limit himself goal of philosophy. to a particular object of inquiry. A philosopher questions almost anything if not everything. Multidimensional or Holistic (Studies all things) FIRST CAUSE OR HIGHEST PRINCIPLE A principle is that form in which something proceeds in any manner whatsoever FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES: Under this definition, some things need to be PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY considered about philosophy: Whatever is is; and whatever is not is not; everything is what it is. Every object is identical to itself. SCIENCE Example: It is called science because the investigation is systematic. It follows certain steps or it employs If the statement that it’s raining is true then certain procedures. that statement holds truth. NATURAL LIGHT OF REASON The concept of Identity lies in the following perspective: Philosophy investigates things, not by using any other laboratory instrument or investigative tools, nor on Personal Identity the basis of supernatural revelation, otherwise, it Body Theory becomes theology. Memory Theory Theology - the study of the nature of God and religious PERSONAL IDENTITY (THE CONCEPT OF belief. YOURSELF) Instead, the philosopher uses his natural BODY THEORY capacity to think or simply, human reason alone or the so-called unaided reason. Persists over time because you remain in the same body INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER COURSE INTRODUCTION from birth to death. Physical aspect of your existence Would us be us if we age? MEMORY THEORY Persists over time because you retain memories of yourself at different points, and each of those memories are Your Consciousness Would us be us if we change personality? PRINCIPLE OF NON-CONTRADICTION This is the opposite of identity which it states that if something is true it cannot be true for all Example: +p, then not -p, +p cannot be -p at the same time and in the same sense PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE A thing is either is or is not; everything must be either be or not be; between being and not being, there is no middle ground possible. Example: Socrates is mortal. So, Socrates is neither not mortal nor immortal. PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON Nothing exists without a sufficient reason for its being and existence. The reason can be external or internal. Example: Mathematical truths might have sufficient reasons in the form of proofs that rest on statements of identity. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY LESSON 1: PARTIAL AND HOLISTIC HOLISM: A WHOLE PERSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVES An idea that all the properties of a system cannot There is a stark difference between the concepts of be understood, explained, or determined by its partial perspectives to holistic perspectives component parts alone The system is considered as a whole and PARTIAL THINKING determines how the parts function or work. It focuses primarily on the bigger picture Is all about focusing on specifics, generally on only one component of a larger picture. “The whole is more than just the sum of its parts” Partial thinking could cover: What makes us one? Repairing a tire of a car; A doctor making a diagnosis THALES OF MILETUS (624-545 B.C.) Completing a subject in school is considered the first noted philosopher of Finishing your homework Western history. Thales was a thinker who loved to gaze at the stars Partial thinking enables you to be micro-focused but and form his perspective from that. it would make you 'forget' the importance that that section plays in the overall operation. Thales's perspective revolves around the following: HOLISTIC THINKING Sensed harmony in the universe and how they are related with each other. Sees one thing as a part of the entire whole. It is a Things work together because they are related practice of viewing someone as a sum of physical, to one another as a whole. mental, social, emotional, and spiritual forms. Asking the question: What makes us One? Holistic thinking could be in the form of: ALLEGORY OF THE BLIND MEN AND THE Completing your high school degree ELEPHANT Finishing your entire house The story of the blind men and the elephant is a perfect Having a complete car overhaul metaphor for the concept of a partial perspective and Viewing a finished blueprint a holistic viewpoint The holistic perspective is viewed as having an impact on the whole, and all of its pieces are thought to be interconnected, so when considering them, you must also consider the impact of change on the whole. In etymology comes from the word “holos” Meaning “all” or “total” INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY Out of touch Not taken seriously Arrogant at times IN THE CONTEXT OF “PILOSOPO” AND WISDOM Going back to our first lesson, we have defined that philosophy in context is divided into two words. Philos (love) + Sophia (wisdom) = Love of wisdom Being a “pilosopo” in the 21st century may be looked at with dismay or be seen as eccentric but remember While one’s personal take about something may be the goal of philosophy is asking questions to life’s true, it may not be the absolute truth (for others’ take mysteries. Hence, the love of wisdom on the same matter may also be true). SOCRATES (470BC-399BC) HOLISTIC VS PARTIAL Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is Partial perspective focuses on just some aspects of credited as the founder of Western philosophy and the whole but the whole picture is overlooked among the first moral philosophers of the ethical The holistic perspective looks at the different tradition of thought things as a part of the whole system. SOCRATES’ THREE MAIN IDEAS DOING PHILOSOPHY WITH A HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE SOCRATIC METHOD It avoids being one-dimensional or partial. It is a dialogue between the student and the teacher. Does not limit investigations to a particular It is instigated by continuous probing and questioning. object or inquiry. Uses a multidimensional approach in its MORAL PHILOSOPHY understanding. Promotes comparing one’s view with others to He was not interested in mathematics or science but get a better standpoint. he was concerned by the quality of the soul. LESSON 2: WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A HUMAN IGNORANCE PHILOSOPHER Socrates claims that in order to gain wisdom, you must WHAT IS A “PILOSOPO”? accept your own ignorance and you must search for knowledge. When society tries to define or explain “pilosopo” we often associate them with: Out of this world INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY SOCRATES AND HUMAN IGNORANCE Socrates considered it his religious duty to call his fellow citizens to the examined life by engaging them in philosophical conversation. His contribution to these exchanges typically consisted of a series of probing questions that cumulatively revealed his interlocutor’s complete ignorance of the subject under discussion. Though Socrates characteristically professed his own ignorance regarding many of the (mainly ethical) subjects he investigated, he did hold certain convictions with confidence: Human wisdom begins with the recognition of one’s own ignorance An unexamined life is not worth living (there must be a reflection) Ethical virtue is the only thing that matters A good person can never be harmed, because whatever misfortune he may suffer, his virtue will remain intact A genuine desire to know starts with the admission of one’s own ignorance. With this desire comes the courage to ask questions. Socrates is a shining example of someone who bravely sought the truth. This is what it means to be a lover of wisdom. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION METHODOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHY The branch also tackles the more daunting pursuits of reality Object – Philosophy has no definite object “Pondering what’s really real, as opposed to what Method – Understand wisdom and knowledge you think is real, and how you could ever know the difference” BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Like all bodies of knowledge, philosophy has a certain The nature of our reality can be explained compartmentalization of its acquired knowledge. by Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. Compartmentalization is established to provide certain areas of study to further deepen the roots of philosophy. The compartmentalization is divided into the following branches: Metaphysics Ethics Epistemology Aesthetics Movies like Inception and Matrix are Logic examples of situations where we question METAPHYSICS our own reality. “What we know” PLATO Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy that “The physical word that we think is the most real, is examines the fundamental nature of reality actually a mere shadow of a higher truth” Examining Metaphysics include: In support of Plato’s claim, there are several Relationships between mind and matter beliefs that were once fact, only to be proven Object and substance false. Potential and actuality Examples are: The term metaphysics comes from the Greek word: 1. The belief that the world is flat. Ta meta ta physica – The work after the 2. The Earth is the center of the universe physics 3. Lobotomies are good for people. Deals with abstract questions such as: Metaphysics talks about the concept of reality and Those pertaining to nature and existence how we perceive reality. The categories of space and time An example of this is an analogy of a bear – The existence of God our warped perception of reality. The immortality of the human soul INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION In this study, it is important to note that: One of the examples is the Burglar twist scenario. The mere presence of a thing does not result in the absence of something And the mere absence of a thing does not mean the overall denial of that thing. Plato describes doing philosophy is hard, but going from darkness to light: Did the Burglar do a good thing? “…is both disorienting and rewarding…” Does he still deserve to go to jail? ETHICS We can view this situation and break it down into “What we act” two views of morality: Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of MORAL REALISM philosophy that “involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of Belief that there are moral facts in the same right and wrong behavior.” way as scientific facts. In this view, any moral proposition can only be Ethics is a branch of philosophy that: true, or false. In short, there are just some things that are Explores the nature of virtues universally wrong and right Nature of moral judgment Ex: To murder a human is morally wrong. Evaluate human action Provide fundamental ethical ideas But there Is a problem about the concept of Moral In short answer, it studies morality and the realism, that is: concept of right or wrong behavior. Why is there a disagreement in what is moral METAETHICS and what is not? This is called the “Grounding Problem” Studies the foundation of reality The Grounding problem of ethics is searching for a Asks the question— “What is morality?” foundation of our moral beliefs, something solid that One way of answering certain metaethical we can make true in a way that would make them questions is by examining it using scenarios. clear, objective, and unmoving. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION All ethical theories have some kind of started assumption because all of our moral beliefs rest on MORAL ANTIREALISM basic, assumed beliefs. Moral principles are the building blocks of ethical theories. The belief that moral propositions don’t refer to objective features of the world at all – there Different views of ethical theories: are no moral facts. Is the belief that moral reality is not the same NATURAL LAW THEORY for everyone. Relies on the starting assumption that God created the universe according to a well-ordered plan. UTILITARIANISM Relies on the starting assumption that all beings share a common desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain. MORAL CONSISTENCY A stable, predictable pattern of moral attitudes is shown by the same individual in different settings and over time. To what extent do you think are the individuals But there is an even bigger problem with the concept morally consistent? of Moral Antirealism. An anti-abortionist who supports the death If every culture is the sole arbiter of what’s right and penalty what’s wrong, then there can never really be a culture A vegan who buys leather shoes that is wrong. A socialist who educates his children at a private school A politician who advocates family values and has an affair An environmental activist who drives an SUV Someone who thinks stealing is wrong but makes illegal copies of computer software or music. ETHICAL THEORIES ETHICAL DILEMMAS These are moral foundations that help someone Situations in which there is a different choice to be navigate consistent answers to what is right and what made between 2 options, neither of which resolves the is wrong. situation in a manner that is consistent with the accepted ethical guidelines. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION Examples: The grass is green. (The proposition of the assertion is TRUE) Offering a client a worse product for your The disinfectant is edible. (The proposition of profit. the assertion is FALSE) Death Penalty and Euthanasia PROPOSITIONAL ATTITUDE EPISTEMOLOGY Speakers' mental state towards the proposition. “How we know” Proposition of Belief – is when one speaks Deals with nature, sources, limitations, and validity of truthfully knowledge. Epistemological questions are basic to all Proposition of Disbelief – is when one tries other philosophical inquiries. to deceive or the assertion is false. Philosophy has different rhetorical ideas to BELIEF advance or call into question certain ideas— this device is called epistemology. Is when you take a propositional attitude for truth Epistemology as a branch of the inquiry of acquisition Belief - Propositional attitude of the truth. You of knowledge explains: believe something is real because you think it’s true. How we know what we claim to know False Belief - Just because thinking something How we can find out we wish to know does not correspond with reality. How we can differentiate truth from Ex: Different parts of the tongue taste differ. falsehood (This is a popular belief proven to be false) Determining knowledge has two faces: When talking about epistemology, it is important to 1. Assertion – A linguistic act either written or define knowledge. Philosophically, knowledge is spoken that has truth value. defined as a justified true belief. Truth value - doesn’t mean if something is KNOWLEDGE (JTB) true or false, only the state of being true or false. Justified – Evidence that supports the belief 2. Proposition – The content of your assertion. The True – Verified Information underlying meaning of what you are saying. Belief – What you think is true Rule of Proposition - The proposition of the assertion is TRUE when the object of the KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE assertion is TRUE. Having direct experiential access to either an object or perception. Examples: Objectual knowledge by acquaintance (I know that tree across the street) INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION Perceptual knowledge by acquaintance (I not see a sheep but a dog. However, there is a sheep know my perception of a tree) only being hidden below the hill. Is your assertion true? The assertion is true but the COMPETENCE KNOWLEDGE knowledge is not. ‘Skill’ knowledge,’ Tacit’ knowledge (something that is understood without being stated/taught.) In Gettier case, a situation in which one can justify Knowing how truth does not connote knowledge. 1. Unconscious Competence Knowledge (Knowing how to breathe, I know how to ride AESTHETICS a bike) When humanity has learned to make something that is 2. Conscious Competence Knowledge (I know useful to them, they dream of making it beautiful. how to program a computer) The establishment of criteria of beauty is the PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE function of aesthetics. The aesthetic choices we make influence a Descriptive knowledge part of our lives. is knowing that some proposition is true. The philosophical study of beauty and taste Examples: I know that snow is white. I know that Paris is the capital of France. I know that 2 is a prime number. A Proposition is the meaning of an assertoric statement. An assertoric sentence is a sentence that purports to assert a truth (e.g. “it rains”) GETTIER CASES PLATO In Plato’s perspective of Aesthetics, “arts play to our Named in honor of the great American emotion rather than our soul.” philosopher Edmund Gettier, who discovered them in 1963 Art goes against Plato’s tripartite roles the soul They function as challenges to the philosophical tradition of defining knowledge of a proposition as 1) Rational/Logical - By facts and arguments a justified true belief in that proposition. 2) Spirited/Emotions -How feelings fuel our You don’t know something if you just stumbled on actions the right answer. 3) Appetitive/Physical Desires - Drives our desires Example: R.G COLLINGWOOD You are standing in an empty field and see something atop the hill and claim that the field has sheep. You did ” Art is an escape from reality” INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION ” The best art, the art that matters is the stuff that A scary movie or a tearjerker can allow us to express changes the way we interact with the world” strong negative emotions in a safe environment. At the end of the emotional purge, we feel really good. According to Collingwood, there are 2 types of art: Why do we feel emotions about a character of a Amusement Art - Helps audience escape from film/book dying? reality Magic Art - Helps audience change their We feel certain emotions towards fictional perspective in life. characters There are times when Amusement art can be magic art KENDALL WALTON because the art that is made for amusement can Argued that the emotional responses we feel change how people see reality. towards a fictional character aren’t real. Thought bubble on aesthetics – The Naruto These are only ‘quasi emotions’ triggered by the Dilemma character. Example: When watching a horror movie where the monster makes an Attack towards the viewer (towards the camera), the viewer can be startled but does not truly fear for his or her life. NOEL CAROLL ARISTOTLE Argued against it and said we can have real emotional responses to fictional characters and situations. Unlike his teacher, Aristotle Is Pro-art “Our bodies need to experience a full range of LOGIC emotions to stay in balance.” “Art can crave emotions” “How we think” Catharsis - Pleasurable release we have been Reasoning is the concern of the logician. This could be yearning for reasoning in science and medicine, in ethics and law, in politics and commerce, in sports and games, and in THE PROBLEM OF TRAGEDY the mundane affairs of everyday living. Why are we prepared to watch a movie that would give us feelings of sadness and discomfort? Logic also gives sound and valid reason, so one of the main objectives of logic is to identify fallacies Emotional purge -the process of eliminating in arguments. emotions that don't serve you, and for this post, specifically pain, fear, pity, anger, and ARISTOTLE shame He once described humans as the Rational Animal INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION Rationality is our distinguished characteristic – it’s Example 1: what sets us apart from the beasts First premise: All birds lay eggs. But sometimes, or most of the time, people tend to Second premise: Pigeon is a bird; confuse a good argument with: Conclusion: Therefore, pigeons lay eggs. Speaking angrily or loudly than the other Having a funny or witty comeback This is an example of Entailment where if A is true, B must follow. A necessarily leads to B. Learning about arguments and strong reasoning will not only make you a better philosopher, it will also set An argument is valid if the truth of the premise you up to be a more persuasive person. guarantees the truth of the conclusion. PLATO Example 2: Going back to the tripartite of the soul. According to Premise 1: All humans are mortal Plato, the best people are always ruled by the rational Premise 2: Socrates is a human part of their soul. Because it keeps the emotional and Conclusion: Socrates is Plato’s teacher. appetitive part of the soul controlled and managed. Thought bubble on the barber paradox: This is an example of an invalid argument. There is nothing about human mortality that can prove that Socrates was Plato’s teacher. INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT Is the opposite of a deductive argument. It is a bottom- up approach that allows you to arrive at a conclusion Premise – is used to justify a conclusion and it forms based on observations. Of the two types of the structure of your argument. arguments, inductive arguments go from specific to general. They use data and observations to draw a Different species of argument: pattern. DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT For an inductive argument, if the conclusion is true, then the premise is true. A deductive argument is based on a strong premise for The future might be predicted by the past. the conclusion. It’s a top-down approach in which you Inductive argument can’t give you certainty, it reach a conclusion based on a premise that is assumed can only give you probabilities. to be true Example 1: Draw a conclusion from a broad argument or judgment. Premise 1: Most men in ancient Athens have a beard General ideas to specific conclusions. Premise 2: Socrates was a man that lived in ancient Athens INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a man with a beard. Person 2: So you hate Jollibee. ABDUCTIVE ARGUMENT (Person 1 didn’t say that they hate Jollibee, only their preferences) John: I think we should hire someone to TYPES OF FALLACIES redesign our website Another area of logic that we should emphasize is the Luke: You’re saying we should throw our identification of fallacies in one’s argument. money away on external resources instead of building up our in-house design team? That’s Fallacies are a mistaken belief that focuses on going to hurt are company in the long run. unsound judgment or argument. THE BANDWAGON FALLACY ARGUMENT TO PITY Just because a significant portion people believe a This occurs when someone uses their own misfortune proposition is true, doesn’t automatically make it true. as a valid reason for the argument. Example: Example: The majority of people believe advertisers Please, you must consider my application should spend more money on billboards, so it despite my lack of requirements and lateness means billboards are objectively the best for because I have a poor family that I need to advertisements. support and I just loaned money to be here. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE This occurs by justifying your argument not by using a Rejecting an argument because the person advising it sound argument but by using your authority to fails to practice what they preach. validate it. Example: Example: Doctor: You should quit smoking, it is a serious Despite the fact that our Q4 numbers are much lower health risk. than usual, we should push forward using the same Patient: Look who’s talking. I’ll quit if you quit. strategy because our CEO says this is the best approach. THE STRAW MAN FALLACY Occurs when your opponent over-simplifies or HASTY GENERALIZATION misrepresents your argument to make it easier to Occurs when someone draws expansive conclusions attack or refute. based on inadequate or insufficient evidence. Example: Person 1: I prefer McDonald’s over Jollibee. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND OPINION Example: A Chinese tourist was seen defecating on beaches; therefore, all Chinese defecate on beaches. AD HOMINEM OR AGAINST THE PERSON Rejecting someone’s argument by attacking the person rather than evaluating their argument on its merit. Example: How can you give a valid argument, you’re not even that beautiful! INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT EMBODIED SPIRIT Our age count began as soon as our embodied existence and not in our imagined existence. The The most direct connotation when viewing something bodies we are born in determines who we will be in as “embodied” is that it is: this world. Materialized - The term ‘materialized’ means Under our civil code, the person can be divided into something comes into material existence and two (2) classifications: appearance. Incarnated - The term ‘incarnate’ means Natural persons – human beings created by something exists in the form of the flesh or God through the intervention of the parents. bodily nature Juridical person – those who are created by the law. So, in saying that the human person is an embodied spirit, we say that the human person is in the point of Our relationships with the people around us: convergence between material and spiritual entities Is defined as our biological relationships that are PERSONHOOD connected to our embodied existence or in other words, how we exist To understand the specificity of the human person as an embodied spirit, we need first to define the two Mother concepts of the embodied spirit: Father Friends Body Soul As limitations, the body-related aspects about ourselves are not products of our free choice – we In this perspective, we can define it as: cannot choose how we are born. The inseparable union between body and soul They have, in a sense, been given to us on a The body is not separate from the soul; permanent basis. and the soul is not separate from the body. This, of course, has been a source of frustration for LESSON 1: THE BODY AS A SOURCE OF most people. Some are not happy with what they are LIMITATION AND POSSIBILITY born with. Human existence, as defined, is an embodied Frustrations of this kind put this body in a negative existence. Many things are related to a person’s light as if it is some form of imprisonment. existence: THE BODY AS TRANSCENDENCE Age Sex While we mostly complain about the things Race mentioned above, we hardly see that the body also opens possibilities. Relationships INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT While the body limits us, the very same IMMANUEL KANT limitations create opportunities for us. When we accept these limitations, we accept that Was a German philosopher and one of the central we need to strive more for the opportunity of the Enlightenment thinkers. different possibilities in our lives He proposed the ability or being to go beyond the limits of all possible experience and knowledge. THE PARADOX OF POSSIBILITIES IN Remember, our concept of transcendence comes from LIMITATIONS the concept of a person. We often complain that we cannot be everything that we want to be. In this lesson, the paradox of the body A person being: as both limitation and possibility teaches us to be Of conscious state thankful we cannot have everything. Because in trying A rational being to be everything, we end up with nothing Free in movement This spirituality in us is identified with the divine image in our soul. Though there are many aspects of transcendence, this lesson will cover three main spiritual philosophies: Hinduism Buddhism Christianity But each character grew out of their limitations and made it a possibility. HINDUISM At the heart of Hinduism lies the idea of human beings’ It is through limitations that possibilities quest for absolute truth, so that one’s soul and the became real Brahman or Atman (Absolute Soul) might become one. LESSON 2: TRANSCENDENCE IN THE GLOBAL According to Hinduism, human beings have a dual AGE nature: In philosophy, the adjective transcendental and the Spiritual and Immortal Sense (Soul) noun transcendence in literal Latin translation: Empirical Life Going beyond or climbing over Between the two natures, however, it is maintained that it is the soul that is ultimately real The purpose of this discussion, it is to go beyond and the existence of the physical body is nothing obstacles or hardships. more than that of an illusion and obstacle. Transcendence by definition is the ability to Hindus generally believe that the soul is eternal but exceed or exceed the usual limits: albeit is bound by the law of Karma (action) to the physical surpassing them and extending or lying world which it can only escape through spiritual beyond the limits of ordinary experience. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT progress through an endless series of births (reincarnation). For this reason, humanity’s basic goal in life is the liberation (moksha) of spirit (jiva) Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a One may rest in the calm assurance of having attained continuous cycle (samsara). While it is the spirit a heavenly bliss that will stretch into all eternity is neither born nor does it die, the body, on the other hand, goes through a transmigratory series PLATO of birth and death. Plato’s perspective of human transcendence goes back Gautama’s life was devoted to sharing his to his concept of the tripartite roles of the soul. “Dharma” or Law of Salvation – a simple presentation of the gospel of inner cultivation of Rational/Logical. Seeks truth and is swayed right spiritual attitudes, coupled with a self- by facts and arguments imposed discipline whereby bodily desires would Spirited/Emotional. How feelings fuel our be channeled in the right directions. actions Appetitive/Physical Desires. Drives our BUDDHISM desires Reduced to its simplest form, the teaching of Buddha To Plato, the appetitive part of the soul is mortal and has been set forth traditionally in the “Four Noble perishes when a man dies. Truths” leading to the “Eightfold Path” to perfect character (arhatship), which in turn gave assurance What survives, or what matters the most, is the of entrance into Nirvana at death. rational part of the person. Hence, it is our ideals and reason that survive and must constitute a greater part of our being. In his book The Republic, Plato describes that the soul, “is the giver of the body, the permanent, changeless, and divine element as opposed to the changing, transitory and perishable body. This makes the human being ‘a soul using the body’” The life of a being, for Plato, is a continuous ascent towards the world of ideas, a journey in which we should try to free ourselves from our imprisonment in In Buddhism, the way of salvation lies through: the body. self-abnegation CHRISTIANITY rigid discipline of mind and body a consuming love for all living creatures enlightened wisdom (Nirvana) AUGUSTINE (354-430 BCE) INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT For Augustine (354-430 CE), philosophy is amor ST. THOMAS AQUINAS sapiential, the love of wisdom; its aim is to produce he believes of all creatures, human beings have the happiness. Christianity, as presenting the full unique power to change themselves and things for the revelation of the true God, is the only full and true better. philosophy Aquinas considers human beings moral The teachings of Christianity are based on the love of agents God, in which Augustine’s, Aquinas’, and Anselm’s Our spirituality separates us from animals, it arguments are basically rooted. For Augustine, differentiates the moral dimensions of our Christianity, as presenting the full revelation of the fulfillment in actions. true God, is the only full and true philosophy. Through our spirituality, we have a However, we can love only that which we conscience. know. We can love only those on whom we can see, feel, or touch. Thus, whether we choose to be “good” or “evil” But where does this “love” for God come from? becomes our responsibility. According to Augustine, it begins with faith and is The freedom of choice and to choose is highlighted in made perfect by understanding. All knowledge Aquinas. leads to God so that faith supplements and enlightens reason so that it may proceed to an ever richer and fuller understanding. Indeed, without this enlightenment of faith, reason invariably sooner or later, goes astray. It should be taken as a humble acceptance of the fact that human beings alone, without God, are bound to fail As stated in John 15:5 I am the vine; you are the branches. If you remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit; apart from me, you can do nothing Further quoted in Psalm 4 The thoughts are very deep! The dull man cannot know. The stupid cannot understand this This would entitle, that the transcendence of man and as an embodied spirit would only be passed through the belief of God and having faith upon him. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER CHAPTER 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MIDTERMS 12-ACCOUNTABILITY/1st SEMESTER ADDITIONAL NOTES The purpose of Philosophy is to ASK QUESTIONS The gift and curse is REASONING The ability to reason RATIONALITY Creates Conflict Logical - Physical Aspect of traits GROWTH (predictable)- shaped by genes DEVELOPMENT (Mental Capacity, Maturity) - shaped by the environment. It can be ethnic or cultural