Animal Physiology PDF

A.BIO 2 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY ROSE ANN Z. MASA,RN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR V Prelude to Animal Physiology  LECTURE DISCUSSION PART2 Cellular level Homeostasis Animal Balance and Disorders Physiolog Environmental factors y Cadaver and the L...

A.BIO 2 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY ROSE ANN Z. MASA,RN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR V Prelude to Animal Physiology  LECTURE DISCUSSION PART2 Cellular level Homeostasis Animal Balance and Disorders Physiolog Environmental factors y Cadaver and the Law Body Positions Directional Terms  Sodium Potassium pump or just sodium pump is found in all cells and is LESSON 1- responsible for establishing the HUMAN gradient across the plasma membrane PHYSIOLOGY At the cellular level Gradient provides energy for several essential cell functions  Autosomal recessive disease characterized by 1.chronic lung infections,2. pancreatic insufficiency and 3.infertility among men In the clinic common among white and known as the most Cystic common lethal genetic disease as a result of Fibrosis mutation(of chromosome 7), usually deletion ,thus the degradation of the protein by the ER is altered and the transporter does not reached the plasma membrane  Did you know that you have more microbial cells than human cells in your body? (10:`1) That’s as many as 100 trillion microbial cells, which can Number of collectively account for anywhere between 2 and 6 pounds of Microbial cells your body weight! versus human a microbe is any living thing that cannot be seen with the naked cells eye (for example, bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa). in October 2007 the national institute of health initiated the 5- year human microbiome Project, the largest study of its kind.  The total population of microbial cells on the human body is referred to as the microbiota, while the combination of these microbial cells and their genes is known as the microbiome. The micro- biota includes Number of so-called “good” bacteria that do not cause disease and may even help us. it also includes pathogenic Microbial cells versus human cells Five significant regions of the human body were examined: airway, skin, mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and vagina.  The existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body despite fluctuations in either the external environment or the internal environment. Most body cells are surrounded by a small amount of fluid, and normal cell functions depend on the maintenance of the Homeostasis cells’ fluid environment within a narrow range of conditions , including temperature, volume, and chemical content. These conditions are called variables because their values can change.  Volume and Composition of Body Fluid Compartments Whole Body Steady – State Balance HOMEOSTASIS Effector signal--------CNS Sensor-------Affector signal Thirst--- Set Point=body fluid ADH----- Osmolality (anion-cation) Antidiuretic Hormone  Water Input ---------------------- Water Output 1. Ingested(liquid ,in food). 1. Lungs Water input 2. Generated from Cellular 2. Skin and output metabolism. 3. GI Tract 4. Kidneys  Often results in the accumulation of the interstitial fluid in the In the Clinic brain(edema) and swelling of neurons Neurological Procedures and Cerebrovascular accidents(CVA- Brain is enclosed within the skull and Strokes) Edema can raise the intracranial pressure, disrupt neuronal function which leads to coma and death HOMEOSTASIS : REGULATION OF GLUCOSE  The study of human bodies is the foundation of medical education, and for much of history, anatomists have used the bodies of people who have died, called cadavers, LESSON 2 - for these studies. Clinical however, public sentiment has often made it difficult for anatomists to obtain human bodies for dissection. in the early 1800s, the benefits of human dissection for Impacts: training physicians had become very apparent, and the need for cadavers increased beyond the ability to acquire them legally. Thus arose the resurrectionists, or body CADAVER AND snatchers. For a fee and no questions asked, they removed bodies from graves and provided them to medical schools. THE LAW Because the bodies were not easy to obtain and were not always in the best condition, two enterprising men named William Burke and William Hare went one step further  Over a period of time, they murdered seventeen people in Scotland and sold their bodies to a medical school. Clinical Impacts: When discovered, Hare testified against Burke and went free. Burke was CADAVER AND convicted, hanged, and publicly dissected. Discovery of Burke’s activities so outraged the public that sensible laws THE LAW regulating the acquisition of cadavers were soon passed, and this dark chapter in the history of anatomy was closed. At present in the united States, it is quite simple to donate your body for scientific study. The uniform anatomical gift act allows individuals to donate their organs or entire cadaver by putting a notation on their driver’s license. you need only to contact a medical school or private agency to file the forms that give them the rights to your cadaver.  Keloy , a gymnast is perfectly The human body adjusts balanced, yet a slight movement in its balance among all its any direction would cause him to parts through a process adjust his position. called homeostasis. LEARN TO PREDICT 1 If he is suffering from a blood sugar disorder. Normally, tiny collections of cells embedded in the pancreas respond Earlier, just before event, to the rise in blood sugar by he’d eaten an energy bar, secreting the chemical insulin. blood sugar rises.  Insulin increases the movement of sugar All symptoms he from the blood into the cells. However , he worried could be due did not feel satisfied from his energy bar, to a family history of felt dizzy and was still hungry diabetes. Fortunately, the on- site trainer tested his blood sugar and noted that it was LEARN TO much higher than normal. PREDICT 1 A thorough After a visit to his understanding of regular physician, He homeostasis, create was outfitted with an an explanation for insulin pump and his Keloy’s blood sugar blood sugar levels levels before and are more consistent. after his visit to the doctor.  What effect would swimming in cool water have on body temperature regulation mechanisms? LEARN TO PREDICT2 PREDICT 3 What would happen if a negative-feedback mechanism did not return the value of a variable, such as body temperature, to its normal range?  They also Early thought that Typically, physicians health resulted physicians believed that from a proper used sharp the body balance of these juices and that an instrument The idea supported excess of any one s to CLINICAL that the four juices, or humors: of them caused disease. puncture body IMPACT maintains a the red juice of blood, the Normally, they believed, the body would the larger, external balance Humors and (homeostas yellow juice of bile, the attempt to heal itself by expelling vessels, but sometimes Homeostasis is) can be traced back white juice secreted the excess juice, as when mucus runs from the they applied to ancient from the nose of a person with a cold. This leeches, Greece. nose and lungs, and a belief led to the blood- practice of blood- black juice in letting to restore eating the the body’s organisms, normal balance pancreas. of juices. to the skin.  Tragically, in the The brass basin on eighteenth and top of the pole nineteenth represent- ed the The fact that centuries, bowl for leeches, bloodletting did bloodletting went and the bowl on not improve the to extremes. the bottom patient’s During this period, represented the condition was a physician might basin for taken as recommend collecting blood. evidence that BLOOD bloodletting, but barbers conducted The stripes represented the not enough blood had been LETTING the actual procedure. in fact, bandages used as tourniquets, and removed to the traditional the pole itself restore a red-and-white- stood for the healthy balance striped barber wooden staff of the body’s pole originated as patients gripped a symbol for during the juices. bloodletting. procedure.  Thus, the obvious There are some diseases in which solution was to let bloodletting is still The modern term still more blood, useful—for example , for bloodletting is undoubtedly p o l y c y t h e m i a, an phlebotomy, but causing many overabundance of red BLOOD deaths. it is practiced in a controlled setting blood cells. however, bloodletting in these eventually, the LETTING failure of this and removes only patients does not continue until the small volumes of approach became patient faints or dies. blood, usually for Fortunately, we now obvious, and the laboratory testing. understand more about practice was how the body abandoned. maintains homeostasis. Positive versus Negative Feedback Mechanism  The anatomical position refers to a person standing erect LESSON 3- with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward. Body Positions A person is in supine position when lying face upward DIRECTIONAL TERMS A person is prone position when lying face downward VIRAL EXANTHEM (ERUPTIVE SKIN RASH-spots ,bumps,blotches)CONSIST OF RED MACULES AND PAUPLES THAT BEGIN ON THE HEAD AND SPREAD IN CEPHALO-CAUDAL Organ systems of the body Organ systems of the body Organ systems of the body  The position of the body can affect the description of body parts relative to each other. Body In the anatomical position, the elbow is above Positions the hand, but in the supine or prone position, DIRECTIONAL the elbow and hand are at the same level. TERMS To avoid confusion, relational descriptions are always based on the anatomical position, no matter the actual position of the body.  It is important to become familiar with Directional terms these directional terms as soon as describe parts of possible because you will see them the body relative repeatedly to each other Directional Terms Up is replaced by superior, down by Right and left are used as inferior, front by anterior, and back directional terms in by posterior. anatomical terminology.  Therefore, the anterior Thus, the As previously surface of the posterior mentioned, human body The word surface of the word is also called posterior Directional anterior the ventral means that the body is the dorsal means that surface, or which Terms which goes belly, follows, and surface, or back, which before; the because the dorsal word ventral belly “goes follows as means back. means belly. first” when we are we are walking. walking.  Proximal means nearest, whereas distal means distant. Directional These terms are used to refer to linear structures, such as the limbs, in which one end is near another Terms structure and the other end is farther away. Each limb is attached at its proximal end to the body, and the distal end, such as the hand, is farther away.  Medial means toward the midline, and lateral means away from the midline The nose is located in a medial position on the face, and the ears are lateral to the Directional nose. Terms The term superficial refers to a structure close to the surface of the body, and deep is toward the interior of the body. For example, the skin is superficial to muscle and bone  Provide the correct directional term for the following statement: Learn to Predict 4 When a boy is standing on his head, his nose is ______ to his mouth. Directional Terms for the Human Body VENTRAL VIEW DORSAL VIEW Health. The central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk. professionals use a number of terms when The trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis), and referring to pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the different regions hips). or parts of the body. The upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.  The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. LIMBS Note that, contrary to popular usage, the terms arm and leg refer to only a part of the respective limb.  The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four sections, or quadrants, by two imaginary lines one horizontal and one vertical that Quadrants intersect at the navel The quadrants formed are the right- upper, left-upper, right-lower, and left-lower quadrants  In addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is sometimes subdivided into by four imaginary lines two Quadrants and horizontal and two vertical. Regions These four lines create an imaginary tic-tac-toe figure on the abdomen, resulting in QUADRANTS: SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN   Epigastric  Right and Left Hypochondriac NINE Umbilical ABDOMINAL Right and Left lumbar REGIONS  Hypogastric Right and Left iliac   A sagittal plane runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left parts. The word sagittal literally means the flight of an arrow and refers to the way the body would be split by an arrow passing anteriorly to posteriorly  A median plane is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves. PLANES  A transverse plane, or horizontal plane, runs parallel to the surface of the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts.  A frontal plane, or coronal ; crown plane, runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. LONGDITUDINAL TRANSVERSE OBLIQUE  Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure. Longitudinal A cut through the long axis of the and organ is a longitudinal section transverse Section A cut at a right angle to the long axis is a transverse section, or cross section.  The body contains many cavities. Some of these cavities, such as the nasal cavity, open to the LESSON 4- outside of the body, and some do not. Body Cavities , The trunk contains three large cavities that do Serous not open to the outside of the body: the thoracic membranes, cavity, the abdominal cavity, and the pelvic cavity mesenteries The thoracic cavity is surrounded by the rib cage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the muscular diaphragm  It is divided into right and left parts by a median structure called the mediastinum; wall The mediastinum is a partition Thoracic containing the heart, the thymus, cavity the trachea, the esophagus, and other structures. The two lungs are located on each side of the mediastinum.  The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically separated and sometimes are called the Abdominopelvic Body Cavities , cavity. Serous membranes, Pelvic cavity is a Abdominal cavity is bounded mesenteries small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis primarily by the abdominal muscles and and contains the urinary contains the stomach, bladder, part of the the intestines, the liver, large intestine, and the the spleen, the internal reproductive pancreas, and the organs. kidneys. TRUNK CAVITIES  They lined the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities. Serous membranes To understand the relationship between serous membranes and an organ, imagine pushing your fist into an inflated balloon. The inner balloon wall in contact with your fist (organ) represents the visceral organ; serous membrane, and the outer part of the balloon wall represents the parietal serous membrane. SEROUS MEMBRANES  The cavity, or space, between the visceral and parietal serous membranes is normally Serous filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous membranes fluid produced by the mem- branes and body cavity As an organ rubs against another organ or against the body wall, the serous fluid and smooth serous membranes reduce friction  The thoracic cavity contains three serous membrane-lined cavities: a pericardial cavity and two pleural Serous cavities. membranes and body cavity The pericardial (around the heart) cavity surrounds the heart  The visceral pericardium covers the heart, which is contained within a connective tissue sac lined with the parietal pericardium BODY CAVITIES The pericardial cavity, which contains pericardial fluid, is located between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium HEART AND PERICARDIUM LUNGS AND PLEURA VISCERAL PERITONEUM  Patient is rushed to the hospital emergency room. earlier today, she experienced diffuse abdominal pain, but no fever. CLINICAL CASE Then the pain became more intense and shifted to her right- lower quadrant. She also developed a fever. ON POINT: Peritonitis The examining physician concludes that the patient has appendicitis, an inflammation of the appendix that is usually caused by an infection. The outer surface of the appendix is visceral peritoneum.  The outer surface of the appendix is visceral peritoneum An infection of the appendix can rupture its wall, releasing bacteria CLINICAL CASE into the peritoneal cavity and ON POINT: causing peritonitis. Peritonitis Appendicitis is the most common cause of emergency abdominal surgery in children, and it often leads to peritonitis if not treated Serous membranes  Consist of two layers of peritoneum fused together connect the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall or to the visceral peritoneum of other abdominopelvic organs. Mesenteries Anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs. Other abdominopelvic organs are more closely attached to the body wall and do not have mesenteries.  Parietal peritoneum covers these other organs, which are said to be retroperitoneal (behind). The retroperitoneal organs includes the following : Retroperitoneal the kidneys, the adrenal glands,  the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder  Explain how an organ CLINICAL can be located within APPLICATION: LEARN TO the abdominopelvic PREDICT 5 cavity but not be within the peritoneal cavity. LESSON 5 INFLAMMATION and TISSUE REPAIR TISSUE REPAIR  How are the rates of insulin and glucagon secretion affected immediately LEARN TO PREDICT 5 following a large meal rich in carbohydrates? How are they affected after 12 hours without eating?  Insulin and glucagon together regulate blood glucose levels When blood glucose levels increase, insulin Glucose secretion increases, and glucagon regulation vs. secretion decreases. When blood Hormones glucose levels decrease, the rate of insulin secretion declines, and the rate of glucagon secretion increases.  Other hormones, such as epinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone, also maintain blood levels of nutrients. When blood glucose levels decrease, these hormones are secreted at a greater rate. Hormones Epinephrine and cortisol cause the breakdown of protein and lipids and the synthesis of glucose to help increase blood levels of nutrients. Growth hormone slows protein breakdown and favors lipid breakdown.  Kandy Barr is 60 years old. She is overweight, has been feeling lethargic and weak, and has had two urinary tract infections in the past 6 CLINICAL CASE months. ON POINT: She visited her optometrist because she could not read the handwriting on checks at the bank where she works. her optometrist recommended that Kandy see her physician, who ordered a blood test. the results indicated high blood glucose and blood lipid levels.   After additional tests, Kandy’s physician told her that she has type 2 diabetes mellitus, which results from reduced sensitivity of tissues to the effects of insulin because of abnormal insulin receptors or abnormal responses to the insulin receptors. consequently, insulin is less able to facilitate the entry of glucose CLINICAL CASE into the liver, skeletal muscles, and adipose tissues. ON POINT:  Kandy’s physician recommended that she try to control her diabetes by restricting food intake, especially carbohydrates and fats, and increasing exercise. Type 2 Diabetes  Kandy’s symptoms were reduced as a result of faithful adherence Mellitus to her physician’s recommendations. People who are obese are approximately 10 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than people of normal weight. Frequent infections, changes in vision, and fatigue are common signs of high blood glucose levels.  Age-related changes to the endocrine system include a gradual decrease in the secretion of some, but not all, endocrine glands. Some of the decreases in secretion may be due to the fact that older people commonly engage in less physical activity. AGE VS. GH secretion decreases as people age, but the decrease is greatest in ENDOCRINE those who do not exercise, and it may not occur at all in older people who exercise regularly. SYSTEM Decreasing GH levels may explain the gradual decrease in bone and muscle mass and the increase in adipose tissue seen in many elderly people. So far, administering GH to slow or prevent the consequences of aging has not been found to be effective, and unwanted side effects are possible.  A decrease in melatonin secretion may influence age- related changes in sleep patterns, as well as the decreased secretion of some hormones, such as GH and testosterone. AGE VS. The secretion of thyroid hormones decreases slightly with ENDOCRINE age. Age-related damage to the thyroid gland by the immune system can occur. SYSTEM Approximately 10% of elderly women experience some reduction in thyroid hormone secretion; this tendency is less common in men.  The kidneys of the elderly secrete less renin, reducing the ability to respond to decreases in blood pressure. Reproductive hormone secretion gradually declines in elderly AGE VS. men, and women experience menopause ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Secretion of thymosin from the thymus decreases with age. Fewer functional lymphocytes are produced, and the immune system becomes less effective in protecting the body against infections and cancer.  Parathyroid hormone secretion increases to maintain blood calcium levels if dietary Ca2+ and vitamin D levels decrease, as they often do in the elderly. Consequently, a substantial decrease in bone matrix may occur. AGE VS. In most people, the ability to regulate blood glucose does ENDOCRINE not decrease with age. SYSTEM However, there is an age-related tendency to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus for those who have a familial tendency, and it is correlated with age-related increases in body weight  Name: Lovely Gender: Female age: 36 CLINICAL CASE ON POINT: Lovely manages a business, has several employees, and works hard to make time for her husband and two children. Hyper Over several months, she slowly noticed that she was sweating excessively and appeared flushed. in addition, she often felt her thyroidism heart pounding, was much more nervous than usual, and found it difficult to concentrate.  Lovely began to feel weak and lose weight, even though her appetite was greater than normal. her family CLINICAL CASE recognized some of these changes and noticed that her eyes seemed ON POINT: larger than usual. they encouraged Hyper her to see her physician. thyroidism  After an examination and some blood tests, Lovely was diagnosed with Graves disease, a type of hyperthyroidism. LEARN TO PREDICT 6: Effective treatment for Graves disease.  Graves disease is caused by altered Explain why regulation of hormone secretion removal of part specifically, the elevated secretion of of the thyroid thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland. in approximately 95% of Graves disease gland is an cases, the immune system produces an effective unusual antibody type, which binds to treatment for receptors on the cells of the thyroid Graves disease follicle and stimulates them to secrete increased amounts of thyroid hormone.  The secretion of the releasing hormone and thyroid- Explain why stimulating hormone is removal of part inhibited by elevated thyroid of the thyroid hormones. however, the gland is an antibody is produced in large effective amounts, and is not inhibited by thyroid hormones. A very treatment for elevated rate of thyroid Graves disease hormone secretion is therefore maintained.  In addition, the size of the thyroid gland increases, and connective tissue components are deposited behind the eyes, causing them to bulge. Clinical - Treatment Enlargement of the thyroid gland is called a goiter. plan Lovely was treated with radioactive iodine (131i) atoms that were actively transported into thyroid cells, where they destroyed a substantial portion of the thyroid gland.  data indicate that this treatment has few side effects and is effective in treating most cases of Graves disease. other options include Clinical - 1) drugs that inhibit the synthesis Treatment plan and secretion of thyroid hormones and 2) surgery to remove part of the thyroid gland. SYSTEMIC PATHOPHYSIOL OGY OF GRAVE’S DISEASE  Bini suffers from a genetic disease (diabetes LEARN TO insipidus) and this disease results in excessive PREDICT 7: water loss at the kidneys. diabetes Considering that DNA contains the information insipidus for directing protein synthesis. Since this is a genetic disease, one possible conclusion is that some type of protein is not functioning correctly. proteins have several functions, including acting as receptor molecules and membrane channels.  Malfunction of either of these types of proteins could disrupt water homeostasis. LEARN TO PREDICT: ADH is a chemical signal that regulates water loss from the kidneys. Consider the If the receptor molecules for ADH are altered and not functioning important properly, the kidney cells could not respond to the signal. points made in Another possibility is that water membrane channels, which allow the question water to move across the cell membrane, are not functioning properly and are disrupting water homeostasis.  Goodenough J., et.al., (2014). Biology of humans: Concept, applications, and  issues. 5th Ed. Massachusetts: Pearson Education  Guyton, AC. & Hall JE. (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th Ed.  Pennsylvania: Elsevier Saunders.  Jabbar, A. (2017). Introduction to human physiology. Texas: Open Stax. References  Masa, RZ (2022) LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)in General Physiology  VanPutte, C. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy physiology. Academia.  https://www.academia.edu/29647351/Seeleys_Essentials_of_Anatomy_  Physiology_Van_Putte_Cinnamon_SRG?auto=download https://www.registerednursern.com/four-abdominal-quadrants-regions/