Greek Literature: Iliad and Odyssey PDF

**Ms. Dianne B.** **Lesson I. Greek Literature** a. **Definition of Greek Literature** ** Odyssey:** This poem follows the Greek hero Odysseus on his long journey home after the fall of Troy. It highlights themes of perseverance, cleverness, and the longing for home. Odysseus faces numerous ch...

**Ms. Dianne B.** **Lesson I. Greek Literature** a. **Definition of Greek Literature** ** Odyssey:** This poem follows the Greek hero Odysseus on his long journey home after the fall of Troy. It highlights themes of perseverance, cleverness, and the longing for home. Odysseus faces numerous challenges, including encounters with the Cyclops, Sirens, and the witch Circe. **The Historical Background** The Iliad and the Odyssey are epic poems attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer, composed around the 8th century BCE. These works are considered among the oldest and most important in Western literature. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, a conflict between the city of Troy and the Greek states, while the Odyssey follows the adventures of Odysseus as he returns home from the war. The historical backdrop of these epics is the Mycenaean civilization (c. 1600-1100 BCE), though the poems themselves were written much later. **How Literature Affects History** Literature like the Iliad and the Odyssey shapes cultural identity and historical understanding. These epics preserved and transmitted knowledge about the heroic age, influencing Greek education, values, and historical perspective. They provided a shared heritage that unified Greek city-states and informed their understanding of heroism, honor, and the human condition, which in turn influenced subsequent Western literature and thought. **Outlined Plot** ** Iliad:** o Begins with the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon. o Highlights key events of the Trojan War, focusing on Achilles\' rage. o Ends with Hector\'s death and his funeral. ** Odyssey:** o Chronicles Odysseus\'s journey home after the Trojan War. o Encounters various obstacles like the Cyclops, Circe, and the Sirens. o Culminates with his return to Ithaca and reclaiming his home. **Present Literary Elements** **Themes:** Heroism, fate vs. free will, the wrath of gods, the quest for glory, and the struggles of human life. ** Setting:** Various locations around the Aegean and Mediterranean seas. ** Narrative Style:** Epic poetry with dactylic hexameter, invoking the Muse. **Iliad Characters** ** Achilles:** The greatest warrior of the Greeks at Troy, known for his strength, bravery, and near invincibility, save for his heel. ** Hector:** The noblest and most skilled warrior of the Trojans, known for his sense of duty and honor. ** Agamemnon:** King of Mycenae and leader of the Greek forces, often depicted as proud and sometimes arrogant. ** Menelaus:** King of Sparta, brother of Agamemnon, and husband of Helen, whose abduction by Paris sparked the Trojan War. ** Paris:** Trojan prince who abducted Helen, leading to the Trojan War; often seen as vain and cowardly. ** Helen:** Wife of Menelaus, whose abduction by Paris led to the Trojan War; often described as the most beautiful woman in the world. ** Priam:** King of Troy, father of Hector and Paris, depicted as a wise and compassionate ruler. ** Patroclus:** Achilles' close friend and companion, whose death deeply affects Achilles. ** Odysseus:** King of Ithaca, known for his cleverness and eloquence; a prominent Greek hero. ** Ajax:** A mighty Greek warrior, known for his size and strength. **Odyssey Characters:** ** Odysseus:** The hero of the epic, known for his resourcefulness, bravery, and intellect. His journey home from Troy is fraught with trials and adventures. ** Penelope**: Odysseus\' faithful wife who waits for his return while fending off numerous suitors. She is clever and loyal. ** Telemachus:** The son of Odysseus and Penelope, he grows into manhood during his father's absence and embarks on his own journey to find news of him. ** Athena:** The goddess of wisdom who aids Odysseus and Telemachus throughout their journeys. She is their protector and guide. ** Poseidon:** The god of the sea, who harbors a grudge against Odysseus for blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, and hinders his journey home. ** Calypso:** A nymph who detains Odysseus on her island, Ogygia, for several years, hoping to make him her immortal husband. ** Circe**: A powerful witch who initially turns Odysseus' men into pigs but later helps him after he resists her magic. ** The Suitors:** A group of men vying for Penelope's hand in marriage during Odysseus' absence, they are arrogant and disrespectful, consuming Odysseus' wealth. **Summary** **The Iliad** ** Exposition:** The Iliad begins in medias res (in the middle of things), during the Trojan War, which has lasted nearly ten years. The Greeks (Achaeans) have besieged the city of Troy (Ilium), but the story focuses on the conflict between the Greek hero Achilles and his commander, Agamemnon. The gods frequently interfere in mortal affairs, adding complexity to human conflicts. Achilles is known for his exceptional strength and combat skills, but he is also deeply proud and quick to anger. **Inciting Incident:** The inciting incident occurs when Agamemnon, the Greek commander, seizes Briseis, a concubine awarded to Achilles as a war prize. This action humiliates Achilles, who, feeling dishonored, withdraws from the battle. Achilles' decision to sit out changes the course of the war, giving the Trojans an advantage. This quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles sets the stage for the tragedy that follows. ** Rising Action:** With Achilles out of the fight, the Greeks struggle to win battles against the Trojans, particularly their champion, Hector, who leads the Trojan defense. The gods also take sides, with Athena and Hera supporting the Greeks and Apollo and Aphrodite aiding the Trojans. During this time, the war intensifies, and the Trojans push the Greeks back to their ships. Desperate to help the Greeks, Achilles' closest companion, Patroclus, dons Achilles' armor and leads the Greek troops into battle. However, Patroclus is killed by Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. ** Climax:** The death of Patroclus is the turning point of the Iliad. Achilles, consumed by grief and rage, re-enters the battle to avenge his friend\'s death. In a dramatic duel, Achilles confronts Hector outside the walls of Troy and kills him. This moment is the emotional and action-packed peak of the story, as Achilles' wrath is fully unleashed. ** Falling Action:** After killing Hector, Achilles drags his body around Troy in a show of disrespect. This act horrifies both the Trojans and the gods. Achilles\' anger and desecration of Hector\'s body represent the culmination of his unchecked rage. The gods intervene, compelling Achilles to show mercy. King Priam, Hector's father, comes to Achilles\' tent and begs for his son's body, reminding Achilles of the shared suffering of fathers and sons, both mortal and divine. ** Resolution:** Moved by Priam's plea and recognizing the futility of endless vengeance, Achilles returns Hector's body. The Iliad ends with Hector's funeral, marking a moment of human compassion amid the horrors of war. Importantly, the epic does not depict the fall of Troy, but rather focuses on the personal consequences of pride, honor, and mortality. The resolution emphasizes the inevitability of death and the importance of reconciliation, even among enemies. **The Odyssey** ** Exposition**: The Odyssey picks up after the Trojan War, focusing on Odysseus, a hero known for his cleverness and resourcefulness. Odysseus has been trying to Page 8 of 20 return home to Ithaca for ten years but faces numerous obstacles, largely because he has offended the god Poseidon. Meanwhile, his wife Penelope is fending off numerous suitors who are pressuring her to remarry, believing Odysseus to be dead. His son, Telemachus, has grown into adulthood but is struggling to assert his authority. ** Inciting Incident:** The key incident that propels the plot of the Odyssey is Odysseus blinding the Cyclops Polyphemus, who happens to be Poseidon\'s son. In retaliation, Poseidon curses Odysseus, making his journey home filled with peril and delay. This divine grudge becomes the primary source of conflict, setting in motion the many challenges Odysseus will face on his voyage. ** Rising Action:** Throughout his travels, Odysseus encounters numerous trials and temptations, each of which brings him closer to or further from home. Some of the key episodes include: **o The Lotus-Eaters**, who offer a plant that makes his men forget their home. o **Circe**, a sorceress who turns his men into pigs and later helps him after he outwits her. **o The Sirens**, whose song lures sailors to their doom. **o Scylla and Charybdis**, a six-headed monster and a deadly whirlpool, which force Odysseus to choose between losing men or risking the entire ship. These trials not only test Odysseus' physical endurance but also his intellect, patience, and leadership. Meanwhile, Telemachus embarks on his own journey to find news of his father, which mirrors Odysseus' struggles. ** Climax:** The climax of the Odyssey occurs when Odysseus finally returns to Ithaca, after being aided by the Phaeacians. Disguised as a beggar, he enters his home, which has been overrun by suitors vying for Penelope's hand. Odysseus, with the help of Telemachus, plans a trap for the suitors. In a test of strength and identity, he strings his great bow (which none of the suitors can) and reveals himself. A bloody battle ensues, where Odysseus kills the suitors and reclaims his household. ** Falling Action**: After the battle, Odysseus is reunited with Penelope, though she initially doubts his identity. To test him, she mentions moving their bed, which is immovable as it is built into a tree. This intimate knowledge convinces Penelope that the man before her is truly her husband. Their reunion is an emotional moment of reconciliation after years of separation. Page 9 of 20 **Resolution:** The resolution comes when Odysseus restores order in his household and kingdom. However, the families of the slain suitors seek revenge. Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war who has been helping Odysseus throughout, intervenes to broker peace between Odysseus and the suitors\' families. The epic concludes with peace restored in Ithaca, and Odysseus finally able to live in harmony with his family. **Lesson III. Cupid (Myth) By Lucius Apuleius** **\"Cupid and Psyche\"** is a mythological story found within Lucius Apuleius\' novel \"The Golden Ass\" (also known as \"Metamorphoses\"). It is one of the most famous love stories from ancient mythology and explores themes of love, jealousy, and redemption. **The Historical Background** ** Cupid and Psyche** is a story within \"The Golden Ass\" (also known as \"Metamorphoses\") by Lucius Apuleius, written in the 2nd century CE. This tale is part of a larger narrative exploring themes of transformation, magic, and the human condition. Apuleius was a Roman author and philosopher, whose work reflects the syncretic nature of Roman religion and mythology, incorporating elements from Greek mythology. **How Literature Affects History** **Literature like Apuleius\'s** work influenced the preservation and adaptation of myths across cultures and time periods. The story of Cupid and Psyche has been interpreted and retold throughout the centuries, impacting Renaissance art, literature, and psychology (e.g., the concept of the \"soul\" or \"psyche\"). It helped perpetuate and transform ancient myths into enduring cultural symbols. **Outlined Plot** Psyche\'s beauty provokes Venus\'s jealousy. Venus sends her son Cupid to make Psyche fall in love with a monster. Cupid falls in love with Psyche and secretly marries her. Psyche's curiosity leads her to betray Cupid\'s trust. Psyche undergoes trials imposed by Venus. Psyche is ultimately reunited with Cupid and becomes immortal. **Present Literary Elements** ** Themes:** Love and trust, trials and redemption, transformation, the divine vs. the mortal. ** Setting:** Mythical, various divine and mortal realms. **Narrative Style:** Embedded tale within a larger prose narrative, allegorical. **Cupid Characters:** ** Cupid (Eros):** The god of love, often depicted as a handsome young man with wings. He falls in love with Psyche and faces various trials to be with her. ** Psyche:** A mortal woman of extraordinary beauty, whose mortal existence and trials bring her into a divine love affair with Cupid. She undergoes numerous tasks set by Venus. **Venus (Aphrodite):** The goddess of love and beauty, and mother of Cupid. Jealous of Psyche\'s beauty, she sets challenging tasks for her. ** Zephyr:** The West Wind, who assists Psyche by transporting her to Cupid's palace. ** Jupiter (Zeus):** The king of the gods, who ultimately grants Psyche immortality so she can be with Cupid. **Summary:** **1. Exposition** In the beginning, we are introduced to Psyche, a mortal princess renowned for her extraordinary beauty. Her allure captures the admiration of many, drawing the attention of suitors, but it also incites jealousy in Venus, the goddess of love and beauty. People begin to worship Psyche as a divine figure, which offends Venus. To teach her a lesson, Venus decides to send her son, Cupid, to make Psyche fall in love with a despicable creature, hoping to tarnish her beauty and disrupt her elevated status. **2. Inciting Incident** When Cupid is dispatched to carry out Venus\'s orders, he is struck by Psyche\'s beauty and, against his mother's wishes, falls in love with her. He secretly brings her to a magnificent palace, where he becomes her husband but insists that she must never see his face. Psyche is initially blissful, living in the luxurious palace and enjoying Cupid's love, but she must grapple with her curiosity and the unknown aspects of her husband. **3. Rising Action** Psyche's sisters come to visit her and, upon learning about her mysterious husband, sow seeds of doubt in her mind. They suggest that Cupid may not be who he claims to be and may actually be a monster. This manipulative advice leads Psyche to question her relationship, setting her on a path toward disobedience. Against Cupid's explicit instructions, Psyche decides to light a lamp to see her husband while he sleeps. When she sees Cupid, she is awestruck by his beauty but inadvertently spills oil from the lamp on him, waking him. Heartbroken by her betrayal, Cupid flees, leaving Psyche alone in despair. **4. Climax** The story reaches its climax when Psyche, devastated by Cupid\'s departure, embarks on a journey to find him. She seeks forgiveness and hopes to win back his love. Her journey represents her commitment and the trials she is willing to endure for love. This pursuit leads her to Venus, who is still angry and further complicates Psyche's quest. The climax is marked by Psyche's confrontation with the trials set before her by Venus. **5. Falling Action** Venus imposes a series of challenging tasks on Psyche to test her worthiness. Psyche must sort a massive pile of mixed grains within a day, fetch golden wool from fierce sheep, and retrieve water from a treacherous waterfall. With divine assistance, particularly from helpful creatures like ants, a river god, and an eagle, Psyche completes each task. The most harrowing task is her descent into the underworld to retrieve a box of beauty from Proserpina, the queen of the underworld. Psyche is warned not to open the box, but her curiosity gets the better of her, and she opens it, falling into a deep sleep. **6. Resolution** Cupid, having healed from the oil burn, finds Psyche in her enchanted sleep. He is deeply moved by her sacrifices and her enduring love. He kisses her, awakening her from her slumber. To ensure they can be together forever, Cupid appeals to Jupiter, asking for Psyche to be granted immortality. Jupiter agrees, and Psyche is transformed into a goddess, making her worthy of Cupid's love. The story concludes with Psyche and Cupid united in everlasting love, and even Venus reconciles with them, accepting Psyche as part of the divine family. Their wedding symbolizes the triumph of love, trust, and resilience over doubt and hardship. Lesson V. **Medea (Play) by Euripides** **\"Medea**\" is a tragedy written by the ancient Greek playwright Euripides. It is a powerful and controversial play that examines themes of revenge, betrayal, and the plight of women in a patriarchal society. **The Historical Background** Euripides\' play Medea was first performed in 431 BCE during the Golden Age of Athens, a period of remarkable cultural and intellectual achievement. The play reflects the complex social and political dynamics of the time, particularly concerning issues of gender, power, and revenge. Euripides was known for his psychological depth and challenging traditional values through his works. **How Literature Affects History** Plays like Medea influence cultural and societal views by challenging norms and evoking empathy for complex characters. Medea, as a powerful and wronged woman, provokes discussions about justice, gender roles, and the nature of revenge. Such literature pushes audiences to reflect on their own societal values and the human psyche, influencing subsequent drama and storytelling. **Outlined Plot** Jason abandons Medea for a royal marriage. Medea plots revenge against Jason. She secures refuge with Aegeus, King of Athens. Medea kills Jason\'s new bride and her own children. Medea escapes to Athens, leaving Jason in ruin. **Present Literary Elements** Themes: Revenge, betrayal, the status of women, foreignness, and justice. Setting: Corinth. Narrative Style: Tragic drama, intense emotional conflict, moral ambiguity. **Medea Characters**: ** Medea:** A powerful sorceress and the protagonist of the play. She is the wife of Jason and is driven by intense emotions of love and vengeance. ** Jason**: Medea's husband, who betrays her by marrying Glauce, the daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. He is ambitious and self-serving. ** Creon**: The king of Corinth, who banishes Medea to protect his daughter and the city from her wrath. ** Glauce:** The daughter of Creon and the new bride of Jason. Her marriage to Jason incites Medea\'s revenge. **Aegeus**: The king of Athens, who offers Medea sanctuary after her exile from Corinth. ** The Chorus**: Comprised of Corinthian women, they provide commentary on the action and reflect on the moral and social implications of the events. ** Nurse:** A servant of Medea, she provides insights into Medea's character and serves as a confidante. ** Messenger**: Brings news of the tragic events that unfold, particularly the deaths of Glauce and Creon. **Summary:** **Exposition** The play opens with a conversation between the Nurse and a Tutor, who discuss Medea\'s current state of mind. We learn that Medea has been living in Corinth with her husband, Jason, and their two children. However, Jason has betrayed her by abandoning her for Glauce, the daughter of King Creon. This backstory sets the stage for Medea's emotional turmoil and establishes her as a strong, yet deeply hurt character. Medea is depicted as a woman who has sacrificed everything for love, showcasing the themes of passion and sacrifice. The Nurse expresses concern for Medea\'s mental state, foreshadowing the tragic events to come. **Inciting Incident** T he inciting incident occurs when King Creon arrives to inform Medea that she and her children must leave Corinth. Creon fears that Medea will seek revenge for Jason\'s betrayal, and his decision to exile her adds to her feelings of powerlessness and rage. This moment marks the turning point for Medea; she shifts from being a wronged wife to a woman determined to take control of her destiny. The emotional stakes are heightened, as Medea realizes that she has nothing left to lose, propelling her towards revenge. **Rising Action** Medea's plan for revenge unfolds as she cleverly manipulates those around her. She initially pretends to accept Jason\'s decision and even offers to help him secure his future with Glauce. Medea uses her cunning to gain Jason's trust, all the while plotting her revenge. During this period, Medea grapples with her emotions, displaying a complex mixture of love, betrayal, and anger. Her internal conflict highlights her humanity, even as she prepares to commit horrific acts. The audience witnesses her mental anguish as she contemplates the morality of her actions, illustrating the theme of passion versus reason. Medea\'s gift of the poisoned dress and crown symbolizes her duality; she is both nurturing and vengeful. The tension builds as she waits for her plan to unfold, creating a sense of dread regarding the consequences of her choices. **Climax** The climax is reached when Glauce puts on the poisoned gifts. The vivid imagery of Glauce\'s agonizing death serves as a powerful moment in the play. This act of revenge is both cathartic for Medea and devastating in its implications. Medea's triumph is short-lived, however, as she is forced to confront the reality of her actions. Jason\'s reaction to Glauce\'s death and the murder of their children becomes a moment of intense emotional conflict. Medea\'s determination to make Jason suffer leads her to commit the ultimate act of vengeance---killing their own children. **Falling Action** In the falling action, Medea confronts Jason, who is in a state of shock and grief. This confrontation is a pivotal moment in the play, as Jason pleads for his children's lives, and Medea coldly reveals her reasons for her actions. She justifies her choices by claiming that her children would suffer from Jason's abandonment and that their deaths would serve as a lasting punishment for him. The emotional weight of this moment is heavy, as both characters grapple with the consequences of their choices. Medea's fierce determination contrasts with Jason's despair, emphasizing the tragedy of their relationship and the impact of betrayal. **Resolution** The play concludes with Medea escaping in a chariot provided by the sun god Helios, leaving behind a scene of devastation. As she departs, she reflects on her actions, expressing a sense of triumph and empowerment despite the horror she has wrought. Medea\'s final monologue is chilling, as she articulates her feelings of vindication while also acknowledging the loss and destruction she has caused. The play ends with Jason left alone to mourn, underscoring the themes of revenge, the consequences of passion, and the tragic cost of betrayal.