Operating System Concepts PDF

Operating System Concepts Tenth Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne Chapter 3 Processes Chapter 3: Processes Process Concept Process Scheduling Operations on Processes Interprocess Communication Examples of IPC Systems Communication in Client...

Operating System Concepts Tenth Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne Chapter 3 Processes Chapter 3: Processes Process Concept Process Scheduling Operations on Processes Interprocess Communication Examples of IPC Systems Communication in Client-Server Systems Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2 Objectives To introduce the notion of a process – a program in execution, which forms the basis of all computation To describe the various features of processes, including scheduling, creation and termination, and communication To explore interprocess communication using shared memory and message passing To describe communication in client-server systems Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3 Process Concept 1 An operating system executes a variety of programs: Batch system – jobs Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion Multiple parts The program code, also called text section Current activity including program counter, processor registers Stack containing temporary data Function parameters, return addresses, local variables Data section containing global variables Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4 Process Concept 2 Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file), process is active Program becomes process when executable file loaded into memory Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command line entry of its name, etc One program can be several processes Consider multiple users executing the same program Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5 Process in Memory Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6 Process State As a process executes, it changes state new: The process is being created running: Instructions are being executed waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor terminated: The process has finished execution Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7 Diagram of Process State Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 8 Process Control Block (PCB) Information associated with each process (also called task control block) Process state – running, waiting, etc Program counter – location of instruction to next execute CPU registers – contents of all process-centric registers CPU scheduling information- priorities, scheduling queue pointers Memory-management information – memory allocated to the process Accounting information – C PU used, clock time elapsed since start, time limits I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to process, list of open files Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9 CPU Switch From Process to Process Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 10 Threads So far, process has a single thread of execution Consider having multiple program counters per process Multiple locations can execute at once Multiple threads of control -> threads Must then have storage for thread details, multiple program counters in PCB See next chapter Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11 Process Representation in Linux Represented by the C structure task_struct pid t_pid; long state; unsigned int time_slice struct task_struct *parent; struct list_head children; struct files_struct *files; struct mm_struct *mm; Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12 Process Scheduling Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time sharing Process scheduler selects among available processes for next execution on CPU Maintains scheduling queues of processes Job queue – set of all processes in the system Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device Processes migrate among the various queues Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13 Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 14 Representation of Process Scheduling Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 15 Schedulers Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and allocates CPU Sometimes the only scheduler in a system Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds)  (must be fast) Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the ready queue Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes)  (may be slow) The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming Processes can be described as either: I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short C PU bursts CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long C PU bursts Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 16 Addition of Medium Term Scheduling Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple programming needs to decrease Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in from disk to continue execution: swapping Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 17 Multitasking in Mobile Systems Some mobile systems (e.g., early version of iOS) allow only one process to run, others suspended Due to screen real estate, user interface limits iOS provides for a Single foreground process- controlled via user interface Multiple background processes– in memory, running, but not on the display, and with limits Limits include single, short task, receiving notification of events, specific long- running tasks like audio playback Android runs foreground and background, with fewer limits Background process uses a service to perform tasks Service can keep running even if background process is suspended Service has no user interface, small memory use Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 18 Context Switch When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the saved state for the new process via a context switch Context of a process represented in the PCB Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the context switch Time dependent on hardware support Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU  multiple contexts loaded at once Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19 Operations on Processes System must provide mechanisms for: process creation, process termination, and so on as detailed next Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 20 Process Creation 1 Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid) Resource sharing options Parent and children share all resources Children share subset of parent’s resources Parent and child share no resources Execution options Parent and children execute concurrently Parent waits until children terminate Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 21 A Tree of Processes in Linux Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 22 Process Creation 2 Address space Child duplicate of parent Child has a program loaded into it UNIX examples fork() system call creates new process exec() system call used after a fork() to replace the process’ memory space with a new program Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 23 C Program Forking Separate Process Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 24 Creating a Separate Process via Windows API Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 25 Process Termination 1 Process executes last statement and then asks the operating system to delete it using the exit() system call. Returns status data from child to parent (via wait()) Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system Parent may terminate the execution of children processes using the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing so: Child has exceeded allocated resources Task assigned to child is no longer required The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not allow a child to continue if its parent terminates Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 26 Process Termination 2 Some operating systems do not allow child to exists if its parent has terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children must also be terminated. cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are terminated. The termination is initiated by the operating system. The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by using the wait() system call. The call returns status information and the pid of the terminated process pid = wait(&status); If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an orphan Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27 Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser Many web browsers ran as single process (some still do) If one web site causes trouble, entire browser can hang or crash Google Chrome Browser is multiprocess with 3 different types of processes: Browser process manages user interface, disk and network I/O Renderer process renders web pages, deals with HTML, Javascript. A new renderer created for each website opened Runs in sandbox restricting disk and network I/O, minimizing effect of security exploits Plug-in process for each type of plug-in Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 28 Interprocess Communication Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes, including sharing data Reasons for cooperating processes: Information sharing Computation speedup Modularity Convenience Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC) Two models of IPC Shared memory Message passing Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 29 Communications Models (a) Message passing. (b) shared memory. Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 30 Cooperating Processes Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process Advantages of process cooperation Information sharing Computation speed-up Modularity Convenience Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 31 Producer-Consumer Problem Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 32 Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution Shared data #define BUFFER_SIZE 10 typedef struct {... } item; item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE]; int in = 0; int out = 0; Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 33 Bounded-Buffer – Producer item next_produced; while (true) { while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out) ; buffer[in] = next_produced; in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE; } Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 34 Bounded Buffer – Consumer item next_consumed; while (true) { while (in == out) ; next_consumed = buffer[out]; out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE; } Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 35 Interprocess Communication – Shared Memory An area of memory shared among the processes that wish to communicate The communication is under the control of the users processes not the operating system. Major issues is to provide mechanism that will allow the user processes to synchronize their actions when they access shared memory. Synchronization is discussed in great details in Chapter 5. Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 36 Interprocess Communication – Message Passing Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables IPC facility provides two operations: send(message) receive(message) The message size is either fixed or variable Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 37 Message Passing 1 If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to: Establish a communication link between them Exchange messages via send/receive Implementation issues: How are links established? Can a link be associated with more than two processes? How many links can there be between every pair of communicating processes? What is the capacity of a link? Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or variable? Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional? Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 38 Message Passing 2 Implementation of communication link Physical: Shared memory Hardware bus Network Logical: Direct or indirect Synchronous or asynchronous Automatic or explicit buffering Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 39 Direct Communication Processes must name each other explicitly: send (P, message) – send a message to process P receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q Properties of communication link Links are established automatically A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes Between each pair there exists exactly one link The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 40 Indirect Communication 1 Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports) Each mailbox has a unique id Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox Properties of communication link Link established only if processes share a common mailbox A link may be associated with many processes Each pair of processes may share several communication links Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 41 Indirect Communication 2 Operations create a new mailbox (port) send and receive messages through mailbox destroy a mailbox Primitives are defined as: send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 42 Indirect Communication 3 Mailbox sharing P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive Who gets the message? Solutions Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was. Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 43 Synchronization 1 Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking Blocking is considered synchronous Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is received Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message is available Non-blocking is considered asynchronous Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and continue Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives: A valid message, or Null message Different combinations possible If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 44 Synchronization 2 Producer-consumer becomes trivial message next_produced; while (true) { send(next_produced); } message next_consumed; while (true) { receive(next_consumed); } Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 45 Buffering Queue of messages attached to the link. implemented in one of three ways 1. Zero capacity – no messages are queued on a link. Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous) 2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages Sender must wait if link full 3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length Sender never waits Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 46 Examples of IPC Systems – POSIX POSIX Shared Memory Process first creates shared memory segment shm_fd = shm_open(name, O CREAT | O RDWR, 0666); Also used to open an existing segment to share it Set the size of the object ftruncate(shm fd, 4096); Now the process could write to the shared memory sprintf(shared memory, "Writing to shared memory"); Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 47 IPC POSIX Producer Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 48 IPC POSIX Consumer Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 49 Examples of IPC Systems - Mach Mach communication is message based Even system calls are messages Each task gets two mailboxes at creation- Kernel and Notify Only three system calls needed for message transfer msg_send(), msg_receive(), msg_rpc() Mailboxes needed for commuication, created via port_allocate() Send and receive are flexible, for example four options if mailbox full: Wait indefinitely Wait at most n milliseconds Return immediately Temporarily cache a message Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 50 Examples of IPC Systems – Windows Message-passing centric via advanced local procedure call (LPC) facility Only works between processes on the same system Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain communication channels Communication works as follows: The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object. The client sends a connection request. The server creates two private communication ports and returns the handle to one of them to the client. The client and server use the corresponding port handle to send messages or callbacks and to listen for replies. Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 51 Local Procedure Calls in Windows Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 52 Communications in Client-Server Systems Sockets Remote Procedure Calls Pipes Remote Method Invocation (Java) Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53 Sockets A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication Concatenation of IP address and port – a number included at start of message packet to differentiate network services on a host The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host 161.25.19.8 Communication consists between a pair of sockets All ports below 1024 are well known, used for standard services Special IP address 127.0.0.1 (loopback) to refer to system on which process is running Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 54 Socket Communication Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 55 Sockets in Java Three types of sockets Connection-oriented (TCP) Connectionless (UDP) MulticastSocket class– data can be sent to multiple recipients Consider this “Date” server: Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 56 Remote Procedure Calls 1 Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between processes on networked systems Again uses ports for service differentiation Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the parameters The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the marshalled parameters, and performs the procedure on the server On Windows, stub code compile from specification written in Microsoft Interface Definition Language (MIDL) Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 57 Remote Procedure Calls 2 Data representation handled via External Data Representation (XDL) format to account for different architectures Big-endian and little-endian Remote communication has more failure scenarios than local Messages can be delivered exactly once rather than at most once OS typically provides a rendezvous (or matchmaker) service to connect client and server Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 58 Execution of RPC Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 59 Pipes Acts as a conduit allowing two processes to communicate Issues: Is communication unidirectional or bidirectional? In the case of two-way communication, is it half or full-duplex? Must there exist a relationship (i.e., parent-child) between the communicating processes? Can the pipes be used over a network? Ordinary pipes – cannot be accessed from outside the process that created it. Typically, a parent process creates a pipe and uses it to communicate with a child process that it created. Named pipes – can be accessed without a parent-child relationship. Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 60 Ordinary Pipes Ordinary Pipes allow communication in standard producer-consumer style Producer writes to one end (the write-end of the pipe) Consumer reads from the other end (the read-end of the pipe) Ordinary pipes are therefore unidirectional Require parent-child relationship between communicating processes Windows calls these anonymous pipes See Unix and Windows code samples in textbook Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 61 Named Pipes Named Pipes are more powerful than ordinary pipes Communication is bidirectional No parent-child relationship is necessary between the communicating processes Several processes can use the named pipe for communication Provided on both UNIX and Windows systems Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 62 Copyright Copyright © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in Section 117 of the 1976 United States Act without the express written permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages, caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein. Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 63