Sociology of Religion 614 PDF

**Sociology of religion 614** Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. This objective investigation may include the use of quantitative, qualitative methods and mixed methods approaches. Subject matter of Sociology of religion: Types of religion Characteristics of religion Forms of religion Worldview of religious society Islamic worldview Theories of religion Characteristics of Islamic Society Islam and nation Building Religious Fundamentalism Sufism and religion Politics and religion Social System and religion Food Pattern and religion Spirituality and religion Literature and religion Myth and religion Religious events Culture and religion Crime and religion **Topic 002: What is Theology?** **Theology** A simple and literal definition of "theology" would be **"the science of divine things**". It comes from two **Greek words** those meaning "God" and logia meaning "discourse or speech". In modern times, it is the stream of knowledge that differentiates the secular pursuit of knowledge from the sacred one because of its starting point: all secular studies begin with reason and experience while theology begins with faith. The starting point for theology is the Word of God. So, while one may say that theology is the study of God. Theology is the science that rationally pursues the understanding of the self-revelation of God in the scriptures. **Self-Consistency** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 2 Theological study is a peculiar discipline in its own right. It has its own methodology, source of information, and objectives. One doesn't study plants and animals in order to study history.For example, science is basically materialistic and deterministically oriented. From the academic and professional point of view, theology is the discipline that is pursued by someone who is seriously interested in entering full-time job, having sensed the call of God. **Doctrinal Coherence** Truth in essence cannot be diversified. It is a unity. Therefore, theological conclusions cannot contradict known truths. It must be able to produce a coherent worldview of true beliefs about God, the world, man, sin, salvation, and final things. Jesus said that a tree is known by its fruits. Similarly, a theology is known by the results it produces. What kind of a believer does it produce? How is it profitable for the Church as the Body of Christ? Are its conclusions practical? **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 3 **Lesson 02** **TYPES AND BRANCHES OF THEOLOGY** **TOPIC 003-007** **Topic 003: Types of Theology** The chief theological divisions are four in number: **1. Biblical Theology** It is a study of the theology of the Old Testament and the New Testament involving also a study of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. It involves exegetical studies of the biblical text in the original languages. **2. Historical Theology** It is a study of Church History and the historical development of theological concepts, teachings, and confessions. It also studies the histories of theologies.The main divisions: Ancient Theology Medieval Theology Reformation Theology Modern Theology it also involves study of Contemporary theologies such as Liberal Theology and Neo-Orthodox. **3. Systematic Theology** It is a systematic and logical presentation of the content of Christian faith (dogmatics) and the foundation of the Christian way of life (ethics). The chief disciplines within it are Apologetics (defense of faith which also involves studies in philosophy and religion, Dogmatics (content of faith), and Christian ethics. **4. Practical Theology** It is the theological study of ministerial practice. The chief disciplines within it are Worship (Liturgy), Sermon (Homiletics), Pastoral Care (Poimenik), Community Care (Diakonie), Administration and Leadership (Cybernetics), Educational Work in School and Community (Pedagogy of Religion). **Topic 004: Branches of Theology** The five main branches of theology are listed below 1\. Folk Theology 2\. Lay Theology 3\. Ministerial Theology **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 4 4\. Professional Theology 5\. Academic Theology **1. Folk Theology** The key characteristics of folk theology are Naïve Traditionalistic Dogmatic Uninformed and unreflective **2. Lay Theology** The key characteristics of lay theology are More reflective upon learned theological concepts Likely to formulate a doctrine of essentiality More critical of unfounded traditions More willing to use study tools **3. Ministerial Theology** The key characteristics of ministerial theology are Reflection is more sophisticated Educated in theological methodology Uses tools and resources at a more effective level Working knowledge of the languages Ability to openly critique personal theology against competing models Devotes more time to reflection **4. Professional Theology** The key characteristics of professional theology are Purposed toward lay and pastoral theologians Works with pastoral and lay theologians Conducts practical original research Critically evaluates common theological trends and folk theology Often accused of quenching the Spirit **5. Academic Theology** The key characteristics of academic theology are Overly speculative Overly critical **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 5 Dialogue can come only with other theologians Unspiritual theology Follows the academic status quo **Topic 005: Islamic Theology** One of the branches of Islamic religious sciences, is mostly referred to as \^ilm al-kalam (the science of kalam), and in short kalam. Kalam is usually translated as "theology," although this rendering does not express well its scholastic methods. The term "speculative theology" conveys in a better way the nature of the theological discussions of the mutakallimun (doctors of Kalam), who used logical argumentation in order to prove some of the principles of religion. Kalam is only one of the two major trends in Islamic theology. The other trend is that of traditionalist theology (\^ilm al-usul, the science of theological principles). Since the scholastic methods of kalam had a tremendous impact on medieval thinkers within the circles of traditionalist Islam, and also on Jewish and Christian thinkers. The terms Kalam and traditionalist Islam refer to Sunni Islam, which is the main body of opinion in Islamic thought. Unless otherwise stated, the schools of kalam and the main thinkers mentioned in this are Sunnis*.* The use of discursive arguments is Kalam's salient feature, which is mostly reflected in the discussions on the existence of God and the creation of the world. The exponent of *kalam was called* mutakallim (lit. speaker, pl. mutakallimun). The mutakallimun are described by both Latin and Hebrew medieval thinkers. The Hebrew designation ha-medabberim and the Latin loquentes were derived from the literal meaning of mutakallim. The mutakallimun were engaged not only in articulating the fundamentals of Islam in an analytic language, but also in polemics of both political and religious nature. **Topic 006: Christen Theology** **Historical background** The history of Christianity unfolds organically through time. It is commonly understood to begin with Jesus, who was born two thousand years ago. However, because Jesus was Jewish, some date Christianity's roots much further back, to the beginnings of Judaism. To illustrate the vast sweep of historical development, this section proceeds in four parts. First, it addresses the roots of Christianity in the first through the third centuries C.E. ("Common Era," dating from the time of Jesus' birth); Second, it describes Christianity's development through the Middle Ages; Third, it explores the Protestant Reformations in the 1600s and their continuing influence today; Fourth, focusing on the United States, it summarizes several aspects of American Protestantism. **Evangelical Christianity** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 6 American Protestantism is often associated with a movement known as evangelicalism. The meaning of the term "evangelical" is commonly used to describe Protestant churches that stress evangelization, or converting non-Christians to faith in Jesus. **Fundamentalist Christianity** Another term sometimes used to describe certain Christians and people of other faiths, including Muslims is fundamentalist. This term refers to people who maintain a literalist interpretation of their religious faith. **Liberal and Conservative Christianity** Various Christian denominations are also sometimes characterized as liberal or conservative. Generally speaking, liberal Christians accept historical and scientific information that calls into question the literal truth of some biblical stories; while conservatives are typically less convinced that such knowledge is relevant to faith. **Topic 007: Theology and Religion** **Theology** Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as following academic disciplines, typically in universities and seminaries. **1. Religion**refers to any cultural system of worship that relates humanity to the supernatural or transcendental. **2. Biblical Studies** is the academic application of diverse disciplines to the study of the Hebrew and Christian scriptures. **3. Church History** studies the history of Christianity and the way the Christian church has developed since its inception. **4. Liturgy** is the customary public worship performed by a religious group according to its beliefs, customs, and traditions. **5. Moral Theology** is a major category of doctrine in the Catholic Church, usually encompassing Roman Catholic social teaching, Catholic medical ethics, and various doctrines on individual moral virtue and moral theory. **6. Systematic Theology** formulates an orderly and coherent account of the doctrines of faith. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 7 **Lesson 03** **INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGION** **TOPIC: 008-012** **Topic 008: Religion** Religion is the socially defined patterns of beliefs concerning the ultimate meaning of life; it assumes the existence of the supernatural (Rodney Stark). Religion may be defined as any set of coherent answers to the dilemmas of human existence that makes the world meaningful. Religion is also defined in terms of its social function. Religion is a set of beliefs and practices that pertain to a sacred or supernatural realm that guides human behavior and gives meaning to a life among a community of believers. **Travers and Rebore (1990) define religion as that which involves:** A belief about the meaning of life A commitment by the individual and the group to this belief A system of moral practices resulting from a commitment to this belief A recognition by the proponents of this belief that is supreme or absolute. **Characteristics of Religion** Most of the leading religions throughout history have shared characteristics. belief in a deity or in a power beyond the individual a doctrine (accepted teaching) of salvation a code of conduct the use of sacred stories, and religious rituals (acts and ceremonies) Belief in a deity/divinity **Three main philosophical views regarding the existence of deity:** Atheist believes that no deity exists. Theists believe in a deity or deities. Agnostics say that the existence of a deity cannot be proved or disproved. **Lesson 009: Conceiving and Defining Religion and Religions** It may seem to many readers that *religion is a fairly straightforward notion, easily bringing* to mind clear and concrete pictures: A group of Muslims at daily prayer, a Christian priest saying massBuddhist monk or nun meditating, a person lighting a votive or holiday candle, and myriad other possibilities. Yet, as in several other domains of social life, such as art, sport, and that ever elusive term, culture, what seems clear at a quick and first glance is anything but upon further reflection.If a Shakespearean play and Neolithic cave paintings count as art, what about the arrangement of flowers on the dining room table, a television advertisement, or the rousing performance of a popular politician on the hustings? Thus, we have disagreement about what does and does not belong in a category like religion or culture;we debate the boundaries between members of a **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 8 category, such as where one religion ends and another begins; but we can also contest the status of the categories themselves. We do this, for instance, when we discuss the legitimacy of what can be claimed by appealing to categories like religion, culture, sport, art, or a number of other social forms. Sociological discussions about defining religion have almost always come to the conclusion that this is a difficult exercise about which there is little agreement.Generally, these debates however around the central organizing distinction between substantive and functional definitions or restrictive and expansive ones. More often than not, substantive definitions, which focus on what religion is, tend to be restrictive; and functional definitions, which center on what religion does, lean toward being more expansive in what they include. Accordingly, the most typical criticism of substantive/restrictive definitions is that they include too little, perhaps on the basis of an implicit theological bias that wishes to exclude "false" religion. In both sociological and non-sociological realms, therefore, the term religion remains somewhat elusive. And this along similar lines of dispute. One reason for this parallelism is undoubtedly that the two domains exist in the same social and historical context. That fact leads to this hypothesis: The definitional or conceptual difficulties with respect to religion point to a social context that encourages and perhaps even requires "religion" to be multivalent. **Lesson 010: Components of Religion** \"Religion is the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude; so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine.\" (William James) **1. Belief system or worldview:** Many beliefs that fit together in a system to make sense of the universe and our place in it. **2. Community:** The belief system is shared, and its ideals are practiced by a group. **3. Central Stories/Myths:** Stories that help explain the beliefs of a group; these are told over and over again and sometimes performed by members of the group. **4. Rituals:** Beliefs are explained, taught, and made real through ceremonies. **5. Ethics:** Rules about how to behave; these rules are often thought to have come from a deity or supernatural place, but they are seen as guidelines **6. Emotional Experiences:** most religions share emotions such as awe, mystery, guilt, joy, devotion, conversion, inner peace, etc. **7. Material Expression:** Religions use things to perform rituals or to express or represent beliefs, such as: statues, paintings, music, flowers, incense, clothes, architecture, and specific sacred locations. **8. Sacredness:** Religions see some things as sacred and some not sacred (or profane). Some objects, actions, people and places may share in the sacredness or express it. **Topic 011: Classification of Religion** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 9 Classification of religion is necessitated by the diversity, complexity, and greatly increased knowledge of religions influenced by the development of the scientific study of religion during the past hundred years. The religious studies on religions to have comparative analyses. Basically, there are two kinds of classification. One orders historical religions in terms of their similarities and differences; The other orders religious phenomena into categories (e.g., sacrifice, purification, rites of passage). **Types of Classification** Religion is classified in various ways. Two important types of classifications are discussed in detail below. **1. Normative Classification** The most common type of classification, historically, has been normative. Religions have been classified according to the norms or standards of the classifiers. Typically, these norms were religiously, culturally, and historically conditioned, if not derived, and tended to be subjective and arbitrary. **2. Geographical Classification** Geography has been a ready means of classification of religions, especially since many religions and types of religion can be observed to belong exclusively or mainly to certain geographical areas.Again, simply binary classifications have appeared, the most common being \"Eastern religions\" and \"Western religions.\" Often \"Western\" means Judaism and Christianity (religions of \"Near Eastern\" origin, actually), with Islam conveniently forgotten by many classifiers.Geography appears at first to afford the possibility of a convenient, intelligible, neutral classification of religions but turns out not to do so. In any case, its value is doubtful, for the significance of geographical considerations, especially on a large scale, is minimal for the understanding of particular religions and groups of religions, recent studies in the ecology of religion notwithstanding. **Topic 012: Elements of Religion** Religion is the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine. A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden. Beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them. Religion, like culture, is a symbolic transformation of experience."Religion is a means of ultimate transformation and/or orientation. A religious tradition has at least three **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 10 essential elements, each handed down and developed in the multitude of ways traditions transmit. **1.** One element is a mythic, philosophical, or theological cosmology defining the fundamental structures and limits of the world and forming the basic ways in which cultures and individuals imagine how things are and what they mean. **2.** Second, Rituals are a finite set of repeatable and symbolizable actions that epitomize things a tradition takes to be crucial to defining the normative human place in the cosmos. Early layers of ritual epitomize the hunt, nurturing of agricultural fertility, acknowledgment of political authority (worship of gods as lords), acts of commitment to other individuals, and so forth. **3.** Third, Tradition has some conception and practical procedures for fundamental transformation aimed to relate persons harmoniously to the normative cosmological elements, a path of spiritual perfection. In theisms this usually means salvation, a right relation to God. In Buddhism it means transformative enlightenment about the truth of change and suchness. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 11 **Lesson 04** **NATURE AND PROCESS OF RELIGION** **TOPIC 013-016** **Topic 013: Nature of Religion** Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and to moral values. Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions, and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe.Many languages have words that can be translated as "religion," but they may use them in a very different way, and some have no word for religion at all. For example, the Sanskrit word "dharma," sometimes translated as "religion," also means law. Throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial and practical traditions. The typical dictionary definition of religion refers to a "**belief in, or the worship of, a god or gods" or the "service and worship of God or the supernatural**. However, many writers and scholars have noted that this basic "belief in god" definition fails to capture the diversity of religious thought and experience. Edward Burnett Tyler defined religion as simply "the belief in spiritual beings." He argued, in 1871, that narrowing the definition to mean the belief in a supreme deity or judgment after death would exclude many peoples from the category of religious and thus "has the fault of identifying religion rather with particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them." He also argued that the belief in spiritual beings exists in all known societies. The development of religion has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis on belief while others emphasize practice. Some religions focus on the subjective experience of the religious individual while others consider the activities of the religious community to be most important.Some religions claim to be universal, believing their laws and cosmology to be binding for everyone, while others are intended to be practiced only by a closely-defined or localized group. **Topic 014: Organized Religion** If we accept that the social forms that religion takes in contemporary global society are to a large degree peculiar to that context, then it follows that assuming these forms to be historically universal would create even more confusion. This sort of projection does in fact take place quite frequently, in particular among academic and theological observers. **Organized Religion** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 12 One of the more notable features of contemporary global society is the proliferation of organizations in virtually every sphere of social life. Although these are certainly not evenly distributed in this society, any more than is wealth or power, they effect social life in all parts of the world. The most powerful of these are economic and political organizations.More than any of the other forms, it is organizations that give religions the concrete presence that is at issue here. Although the Christian Roman Catholic church (along with its numerous subsidiary organizations such as religious orders) is no doubt the largest and most evident of these, every other recognizable and recognized religion has them. The great advantage of organization in contemporary global society is that it offers a very effective way of generating social boundaries that need not be all-encompassing. Organizations define themselves by making a distinction between those who belong and those who do not, between social actions that is part of the organization and that which is not. They structure that difference through rules that govern belonging or not belonging, inside and outside, especially through social roles such as member, client, office holder, and so forth. The modern category or idea of religion(s), ambiguous, contested, and relatively recently constructed as it has been, benefits greatly from the possibilities afforded by the organizational social form. **Topic 015: Politicized Religion** A common direction for this resistance to take is the politicization of religion; making the state and its legislative, legal, administrative and military structures instruments for collectively enforcing the precepts and practices of the religion in question. This direction can yield a distinct social form of religion in contemporary society to the extent that religious structures. The capacity of the state to set collectively binding norms for the people within its territorial boundaries.Thus, its ability to make a particular religion an unavoidable part of these people's daily lives lends. The religion a clear presence as a religion over and beyond what no state religious organizations can do in this regard. Today, this way of giving religion form is most radically evident in certain countries, but varying degrees of it also can be found in a number of other countries where state identities or ideologies include a particular religion. Examples of the latter would be Israel, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Zambia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Russia, and, to an increasingly less effective sense, European countries like Great Britain, Sweden, or Germany. One should note, however, that in none of these cases does the religion in question, whether it is Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, or Hinduism, lack organizational expression as well. State religion, or the use of the state to give social form to a religion is in that sense a supplementary form. Only through the extreme use of this possibility, can the politicized or state form of religion become the primary form. In most other countries, what counts as one of the religions is not that clearly spelled out, but disputes over new and marginal religious movements in countries as varied as Japan, Argentina, and France point to at least an implicit model of **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 13 religion in operation, one that favors heavily the "world religions" and those with a long history in the country in question. **Topic 016: Communitarian/Individualistic Religion** The final form of religion can be dealt with briefly because, it represents the boundary "form" between religions that is institutionalized.In much of the world today what we now call religion is practiced locally and even regionally.Without a strong sense of the system of practices and beliefs being part of a larger whole or of it being a clearly differentiated activity called religion. Contemporary examples may be the local religious practices in India, China, or different parts of Africa, the religious dimensions of life among various aboriginal peoples all over the world,The individual and often idiosyncratic practices of individuals made famous by Bellah and his collaborators under the heading of "Sheilaism," and perhaps a whole array of cultural practices that have escaped incorporation into one of the religions.Examples of the latter would be Western "secular" celebrations of holidays such as Halloween, Easter (bunnies and eggs, not Jesus on the cross), and Groundhog Day. All of these manifestations are religious in the sense that one could and occasionally does observe them as religion. But they do not belong to that category in any consistent fashion because insiders do not seek to have them recognized as religion or reject such categorization; or because no formed and recognized religion successfully claims them.We can say that almost all those forms that make up religion in this way seem to be centrally concerned with one manner or another of supra-empirical or transcendent dimension, realm, or beingswhich contrasts expressly with the empirical, material, ordinary, or immanent domain of other spheres of life and is seen from the religious perspective to be determinative of them. Moreover, almost all those things that fall under the category of religion exhibit some range of, usually ritual, techniques and procedures that claim to render communicative access to that transcendent domain. However, the ways of understanding transcendence and the ways of constructing access to it vary so greatly among religions and in many ways bear clear resemblance to forms that are not deemed to be religion. This formal commonality is by itself not sufficient to determine the practical boundary between religion and non-religion. **Topic 017:Processes in Religion** **The Progression** The categories of progression are discussed below: **1. Fetishism:** The world is filled with a vague, potent, terrifying, inscrutable force or power. **2. Animism/Spiritism:** The power is alive in the form of multiple spirits (trees). **3. Spiritual forces** became visualized in terms of personal spirits as ancestor spirits and nature spirits. **4. Personal spirits** that may inhabit trees, rocks, mountains. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 14 **5. Polytheism:** A transition is made from venerating spirits of limited power and influence to worshiping gods. **6. Monarchianism:** One deity is elevated over others in a heavenly hierarchy. Many different gods were recognized, but only one is worshiped. **7. Monotheism and Pantheism:** Only one God or force exists. **8. Atheism?** The final acknowledgement that there is really no God, and no need of God. **Problems with the Evolutionary Explanation** The evolutionary explanation usually have following problems: No progression is observable. Monotheism is the earliest religion; the high god of the hunting societies and of primitive tribes. A Supreme Being coexisted with the early forms of religion, making it unlikely that He is derived from them. The continued strong presence of religion of all varieties at all levels in modern societies. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 15 **Lesson 05** **IMPORTANCE &EVALOUTION OF SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION** **TOPIC 018-021** **Topic 018: Sociology of Religion** **What is Sociology?** The word "sociology" is derived from the Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos (speech or reason), which together mean "reasoned speech about companionship". Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change them.A set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances.Often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs. The **sociology of religion** is primarily the study of the Practices, Belief system Social structures Historical backgrounds & Development Universal themes Roles of religion in society. There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in nearly all societies on Earth today and throughout recorded history. Sociologists of religion attempt to explain the effects of society on religion and the effects of religion on society; in other words, their dialectical relationship. Religion and social institutions, structure, social world In order to establish a world of peace, harmony among religions is essential. Sociology of religion is a field that should have much to contribute to the understanding necessary to advance such a world. **TOPIC 019: Why Study Sociology of Religion** To Study Sociology of Religionis important as in this subject sociologist discuss: How does religion affect society as a whole (does it divide/unite)? How does it affect social institutions like: Marriages, Political Structures, Economy How does religion, as a social institution, affect the wellbeing of individuals? What does it mean to be „religious‟? How does one define and measure religiosity? Types of Religious Organization Believes in and "feels" or experiences certain aspects of religion Involved in religious activities such as attending church or reading sacred texts Social Cohesion and religion Social Control and religion **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 16 Provides Meaning and purpose of life **Topic 020: Evolution of the Sociology of Religion** **Belief in Supernatural being:** People beliefs in supernatural things like sacred, holy, fear, happiness rituals and moral implication.Religion started from pre-historic period. People discussed rituals, religious behavior beliefs faith and organization with each other in pre-historic period. After that sociology of religion was introduced as a subject to discuss critical nature of religion. **Aspect of sociology of religion:** There are three aspects about the evolution of sociology of religion: **Discipline:** give a path to all thoughts and beliefs about religion. **Integration:** integrate different thought and beliefs about religion. **Cohesive Function:** organized different thoughts, theories and sociological concept on religion. Sociology of religion talk about Social wellbeing, means of control and moralstandards. In functionssociology of religion, we discuss about belief in supernatural power, how to control and manipulate supernatural power. Sociology of religion also discuss about how to use magic power in a positive way. As in history this magic was used for evil purposes white magic was used. **Totem: objects that are treated as sacred is known as totem.** Sociology of religion talk about Values of nationality collective representations, collective consciousness, Ceremonies, rituals that bind people Totemism by Emile Durkheim. **Secularism:**Separation of religious institutions from state institutions and a public sphere where religion may participate, but not dominate. **Topic 021: Sociology of Religion in Contemporary Era** Sociological importance of religion, the terrorist events of Tuesday morning, September 11, 2001, and their aftermath renewed our awareness that religion matters in contemporary times.Clearly, the dawning of a new century has not been accompanied by the eclipse of religion in individual lives and in public culture.Despite, and perhaps because of, disenchantment with our increasingly rationalized society, religion continues to provide meaning and to intertwine daily social, economic, and political activity.The continuing significance of religion in late modern society was not anticipated by classical social theorists and is at odds with much of contemporary theory is due to many factors. An intellectual perspective it largely reflects both the overemphasis on reason and the tendency to relegate religion to the realm of the nonrational that are characteristic of modern social thought.The former places a calculating, instrumental rationality as the overarching determinant of all forms of social action while the latter sees religion and reason as inherently incompatible. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 17 **Reason in Religion** Having emphasized that the norational is constitutive of human society, it is important also to acknowledge that reason has a solid place in religion. Weber, rationality and religion. Habermas rejects a one-sided rationality that privileges strategic action and instead proposes a nonstrategic, communicative rationality grounded in a process of reasoned argumentation. The sociology of religion treats religion as an empirically observable social fact. It thus applies a sociological perspective to the description, understanding, and explanation of the plurality of ways in which religion matters in society.Sociologists of religion are not concerned with inquiring into whether God exists or with demonstrating the intellectual compatibility of religion and science. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 18 **Lesson 06** **THEORIES AND PERSPECTIVE OF RELIGION** **TOPIC 022-026** **Topic 022: SociologicalTheories of Religion** **What is theory?** A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained. A theory not only explains known facts; it also allows scientists to make predictions of what they should observe if a theory is true. **Characteristics of Scientific Theories** A sociological theory is a supposition that intends to consider, analyze, and/or explain objects of social reality from a sociological perspective, drawing connections between individual concepts in order to organize and substantiate sociological knowledge.Sociologists study social events, interactions, and patterns, and they develop a theory in an attempt to explain why things work as they do. **The Main Sociological Theories** There are main sociological theories are: **1. Macro-level** theories relate to large-scale issues and large groups of people. **2. Micro-level** theories look at very specific relationships between individuals or small groups. **3. Grand theories** attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change. Sociological theory is constantly evolving and should never be considered complete. Classic sociological theories are still considered important and current, but new sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them. **Sociological Theories of Religion** The most prominent work of sociologist in the field of sociology of religion is: **August Comte** law of three stages **Durkheim\'s theory** of religion exemplifies how functionalists examine sociological phenomena**.** **Marx** once declared that religion is the "opium of the people." He viewed religion as teaching people to accept their current lot in life, no matter how bad, while postponing rewards and happiness to some afterlife. **Topic 023: Theoretical Perspectives on Religion** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 19 **What are Perspectives / Paradigms?** Paradigms are philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them.Three paradigms have come to dominate sociological thinking, because they provide useful explanations: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. **Structural Functionalism:** The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the whole **Conflict Theory:** The way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power **Symbolic Interactionism:** One-to-one interactions and communications **Theoretical Perspectives on Religion** Let's discuss the theoretical perspectives on religion in detail. **1. Functional Perspectives** Religion is just one the social institutions that contribute to the stability of a society through the social processes of societal cohesion, Social control -- religion applies authority and direction to important points of a person's life cycle including marriage, birth, and death. **Provision of purpose:** religion helps reduce social anxiety by providing answers to broad questions about the meaning of life, existence, and non-existence **2. Conflict Perspectives** Like all the other social institutions, religion can be used by the powerful to legitimate their authority, keep themselves in power, and keep the other classes "in line". Religious belief can be used to validate the political and economic institutions of a society, and even lead to the incorporation of the religious into civil institutions such as law, education and the political order. **3. Symbolic Interaction** Religious identity serves as a reference point which affect the political choices, sexual relationships, and other aspects of daily life for many individuals. It is incorporated into their self, and they see themselves as acting as a Christian/Jew/Muslim/Hindu/Buddhist. Radical changes in faith may involve entire belief systems, self-identity, and one's positions in society. **Topic 024: Functionalist Perspective** **Functionalist Perspective on religion** Functionalists argue that religion is a conservative force and that this is a positive function for society and for individuals. Religion helps to create social order and maintains the value consensus. Durkheim, Parsons and Bellah argue that religion performs important functions for **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 20 society, while Malinowksi argues that it performs an important function for the individual. All agree that religion promotes stability and helps to preserve the status quo and prevent upheaval and rapid social change. **Discipline:** Religious rituals impose self-discipline, which encourages individuals to behave sociably and not simply pursue their own selfish course of action, which would be anti-social and destabilizing. **Vitalizing:** Durkheim also argued that religious belief-maintained traditions, ensuring that the values that are passed down from generation to generation are kept vital and at the heart of the society. **Cohesion:** The key function is social cohesion: worship brought the community together. Through worship people reaffirm and reinforce the bonds that keep them together. **Euphoric:** Finally, if members of society were ever to become frustrated or lose their faith, the religion serves to remind them of their place in something much bigger. Again, it prevents individuals from becoming anti-social. **Topic 025: ConflictPerspective and Religion** Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has a tremendous amount of wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is small. According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the "divine right" of oppressive monarchs and to justify unequal social structures, like India's caste system. Conflict theorists (Marx) are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained.This power dynamic has been used by Christian institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor and to teach them that they shouldn't be concerned with what they lack because their "true" reward (from a religious perspective) will come after death. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication from the divine. The feminist perspective is considered to be another conflict theory view that focuses specifically on gender inequality. In terms of religion, feminist theorists assert that, although women are typically the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally held very few positions of power within religions. **Topic 026: SymbolicInteraction Perspective and Religion** Symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. To interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in a society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 21 examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in what these symbols communicate. Because interactionists study one-on-one, everyday interactions between individuals, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic. The interaction between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in the ordinary components of everyday life, and the ways people express religious values in social interactions---all might be topics of study to an interactionist. Religious symbols indicate the value of the symbolic interactionist approach. A crescent moon and a star are just two shapes in the sky, but together they constitute the international symbol of Islam. A cross is merely two lines or bars in the shape of at," but to tens of millions of Christians it is a symbol with deeply religious significance. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 22 **Lesson 07** **CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORISTS ON RELIGION** **Topic 027-029** **Topic 027: Emile Durkheim and Religion** Emile Durkheim, the founder of functionalism, spent much of his academic career studying religions, especially those of small societies.The totetmism, or primitive kinship system of Australian aborigines as an "elementary" form of religion, primarily interested him. This research formed the basis of Durkheim\'s **1921** book, *The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life*, which is certainly the best‐known study on the sociology of religion. Durkheim viewed religion within the context of the entire society and acknowledged its place in influencing the thinking and behavior of the members of society. Durkheim found that people tend to separate religious symbols, objects, and rituals, which are sacred, from the daily symbols, objects, and routines of existence referred to as the profane. Sacred objects are often believed to have divine properties that separate them from profane objects. Even in more‐advanced cultures, people still view sacred objects with a sense of reverence and awe, even if they do not believe that the objects have some special power. Durkheim also argued that religion never concerns only belief, but also encompasses regular rituals and ceremonies on the part of a group of believers, who then develop and strengthen a sense of group solidarity. Rituals are necessary to bind together the members of a religious group, and they allow individuals to escape from the mundane aspects of daily life into higher realms of experience. Durkheim predicted that religion\'s influence would decrease as society modernizes. He believed that scientific thinking would likely replace religious thinking, with people giving only minimal attention to rituals and ceremonies. **Topic 028: Max Weber and Religion** Max Weber, on the other hand, initiated a large‐scale study of religions around the globe.His principal interest was in large, global religions with millions of believers. He conducted in‐depth studies of Ancient Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism. In ***The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism* (1904/1958**), Weber examined the impact of Christianity on Western thinking and culture.The fundamental purpose of Weber\'s research was to discover religion\'s impact on social change.For example, in Protestantism, especially the **"Protestant Work Ethic**," Weber saw the roots of capitalism. In the Eastern religions, Weber saw barriers to capitalism.For example, Hinduism stresses attaining higher levels of spirituality by escaping from the toils of the mundane physical world.To Weber, Christianity was a *salvation religion* that claims people can be "saved" when they convert to certain beliefs and moral codes. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 23 In Christianity, the idea of "sin" and its atonement by God\'s grace plays a fundamental role. Unlike the Eastern religions\' passive approach, salvation religions like Christianity are active, demanding continuous struggles against sin and the negative aspects of society. Weber tries to establish relation between religious ethics on the one hand and the economic behavior on the other. Weber also tries to substantiate or validate this idea with the help of comparative studies of various world religions. Weber studies Confucianism in Ancient China, Hinduism in ancient India and Judaism in ancient Palestine (West Asia). **Topic 029: Karl Marx and Religion** Karl Marx was not religious and never made a detailed study of religion. Marx\'s views on the sociology of religion came from 19th century philosophical and theological authors such as Ludwig Feuerbach, who wrote *The Essence of Christianity* (1841). Marx once declared that religion is the "opium of the people." He viewed religion as teaching people to accept their current lot in life, no matter how bad, while postponing rewards and happiness to some afterlife.Religion, then, prohibits social change by teaching nonresistance to oppression, diverting people\'s attention away from worldly injustices, justifying inequalities of power and wealth for the privileged, and emphasizing rewards yet to come.Marx held that religion served as a sanctuary from the harshness of everyday life and oppression by the powerful. Still, he predicted that traditional religion would one day pass away. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 24 **Lesson 08** **CONTAMPORARY SOCIAL THEORISITS ON RELIGION** **Topic 030-032** **Topic 030: Rodney Stark\'s Rational Choice Theory of Religion** A sociologist named **Rodney Stark** applied rational choice theory to his study of religious groups. He wanted to understand how people became involved with religion; on what criteria did they base their decision to take part in a particular religious group? The theory states that people will base a decision on the options available and then use specific criteria to make their choice. For example, if an individual has a certain amount of money, is it more rational, according to their individual criteria, to spend it on a diamond for their wife or invest it on retirement. According to Stark\'s reasoning, humans are social creatures who, in general, crave interaction. Thus, it makes sense that choosing a religion would also be social in nature. In an area where there are few Christians but many Buddhists, an individual will most likely choose Buddhism. Because other individuals are likely to be Buddhist and there are more Buddhist temples in close proximity than Christian churches, the choice is an easy one to make.Sales is an interesting field that applies to everything people do. For example, speakers sell an idea or themselves; mothers try to sell their children on the idea of an unfamiliar food based on taste, popularity, or health consciousness to her family. Sales is also a constant when choosing a religious preference. Christianity, Judaism and Islam are based on the acquisition of a place in a desired afterlife. These religions \'sell\' themselves based on what an individual will receive once they die. Eastern religions rely more on the peace and harmony an individual can have in their corporeal lives, since most do not ascribe to an afterlife. Whichever religious choice an individual makes, Stark argues, there is a specific sales pitch that has made that religion attractive. **Topic 031: Foucault and Religion** Foucault was born in Poitiers, France into an upper/middle class family on the 15th of October 1926. He later died in 1984.He was associated with the structuralism and post- structuralism movements during his lifetime.**Foucault was often labelled a post- structuralist or postmodernist**, but he rejected these labels, preferring to present his thought as a **'critical history of modernity,** Society's Beliefs We often talk about people as if they have particular attributes as \'things\' inside themselves; we believe that people have an identity.For example, society believes that at the heart of a person there is a fixed and true identity or character (even though we may not always know exactly what someone's character is, or even exactly what our own character is). **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 25 We assume that people have an inner spirit - qualities beneath the 'surface' of a person which determine who that person really \'is\'. We also say that some people have power, and different levels of it, which means that they are more (or less) able to achieve what they want in their relationships with others, and within society as a whole. Postmodern theorist Michel Foucault is best known for his work on \"power/ knowledge\", and on the regulation of sexuality in modern society.Yet throughout his life, **Foucault was continually concerned with Christianity, other spiritual movements and religious traditions**, and the death of God, and these themes and materials scattered are throughout his many writings.Religion and Culture collects for the first time this important thinker\'s work on religion, religious experience, and society. **Topic 032: Taylor and Religion** Edward Tylor---founder of modern anthropology **Main Work:** Tylor's Theory on Origin Idea of soul --began with interpreting dreams Animism (Anima --souls) Ancestor Worship Fetishism Polytheism Monotheism **Animism:** An acceptance that all sorts of motionless objects as well as living and moving creatures have souls or spirits in them. Identified with E. B. Tylor, who wrote that all nature is possessed, pervaded, crowded with spiritual beings. Tylor's comments on myth are important, for in his eyes they mark the path of inquiry that must also be followed in searching for the origin of religion. He recognizes, of course, that we cannot explain something unless we know what it is; so religion must first be defined.He further observes that we cannot casually follow the natural impulse to describe religion simply as belief in God, though that is what his mostly Christian readers might want to do.That approach would exclude a large portion of the human race---people who are plainly religious but believe in more and other gods than do Christians and Jews. He therefore proposes, as a more suitable place to start, his own minimal definition: religion is "belief in spiritual beings. Taylor frequently begins his meditations with an intellectual or reasoned consideration of his condition or a Biblical verse before feeling an emotional intensity,sometimesecstasy that comes with the understanding of God's greatness and/or his own confidence of being one of the saved.His poetic imagination springs from his religious struggle and faith. **Horton and Religion** Horton sought to demonstrate the value of what he called a **"neo-Tylorian**" theory: namelythat among the peoples of Africa he has encountered. Religion is indeed primarily an intellectual **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 26 exercise, an effort to understand.The world in which gods or spirits play much the same role that abstract conceptions such atoms, molecules, and physical laws play in Western science.His striking and original essayssuggest that on the matter ofintellectualism at least. This special circumstance does not alter the fact that the general course of anthropology has moved in a very different direction from Horton, who remains a kind of lone but important voice of dissent.Robin Horton viewed religion from an ethno-science approach, where he linked religious understanding with scientific inquiry. He viewed the two as having a similar approach of methodically unveiling the complex to achieve order and understanding from chaos. He sees mystical systems that drive \"primitive\" religions as theoretical structures that are dictated by concrete rules and are used to understand, in an interactive way, revealed anomalies, much like scientific endeavors theories the physical world.He argued, for instance, that animism should be taken at face value without the rationalization that it symbolically represents a social or political structure. Horton maintained that a more useful approach would be to compare traditional thought to modern science. The fact that a traditional explanation may be shown to be mistaken in terms of modern science, by no means indicates that the explanation is held by a less intelligent group of people. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 27 **Lesson 09** **THEORIES OF RELIGION-l** **TOPIC 033-036** **Topic 033:Psycho-Analytical Theories of Religion** Some important psycho-analytical theories of religion are listed below Psychoanalytic Theory Structure of Personality(Id, Ego and Super Ego) Psychoanalytic Theory and Structure of Personality Layers of Mind o Conscious, o Preconscious and o Unconscious **Layers of Mind Conscious** **Conscious Mind:**Includes everything we're aware of awareness of our own mental process(thoughts and feelings) ,Rational thinking **Unconscious Mind**contains feelings, thoughts and memories beyond our Awareness,continuous influence on our behavior and action A religion, even if it calls itself a religion of love, must be hard and unloving to those who do not belong to it.From The Future of an Illusion, "our knowledge of the historical worth of certain religious doctrines increases our respect for them, but does not invalidate our proposal.They should cease to be put forward as the reasons for the precepts of civilization. Religion is an attempt to get control over the sensory world, in which we are placed, by means of the wish-world, which we have developed inside us as a result of biological and psychological necessities.If one attempts to assign to religion its place in man\'s evolution, it seems not so much to be a lasting acquisition, as a parallel to the neurosis which the civilized individual must pass through on his way from childhood to maturity. **Topic 035: Freud and Religion** Sigmund Freud (1856--1939) deals with the origins and nature of religious belief in several of his books and essays.Freud regards God as an illusion, based on the infantile need for a powerful father figure. Religion, necessary to help us restrain violent impulses earlier in the development of civilization, can now be set aside in favor of reason and science.While he was very up front about his atheism and believed that religion was something to overcome, he was aware of the powerful influence of religion on identity. He acknowledged that his Jewish heritage as well as the anti-Semitism,the frequent encountered had shaped his own personality.\"Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires.\"Religion is comparable to a childhood neurosis.\" Religion is an attempt to get control over the sensory world, in which we are placed, by means of **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 28 the wish-world,which we have developed inside us as a result of biological and psychological necessities. Freud adds the explanation that the adoption of religion is a reversion to childish patterns of thought in response to feelings of helplessness and guilt. We feel a need for security and forgiveness, and so invent a source of security and forgiveness: God. Religion is thus seen as a childish delusion, and atheism as a grown-up realism. Religion has a historical development, Firstly animism, secondly polytheism, thirdly theism.Magic is replaced by religion which in turn will be replaced by science.Nowadays his theories about the cultural and historical development of religion have been largely discredited. **Topic 036:Jung and religion** According to Jung, Close connection with collective unconscious.Religion as the archetypal system (God, Devil, Salvation...) adopted by human intuitive capacities. Jung treated the religious beliefs as a derivative of archetypal system. The archetypes of God, Devil, Salvation and others religious primordial images are the part of human collective unconscious and could be conceived by means of intuition. **According to Jung a special psychological functionenables us to understand the symbols ofarchetypal** contents. From the newest psychoanalytically influenced interpretations of religion, we can mention the relational models, for example those inspired by object-relation theory. In this respect, the religious experience is modeled by the early infant-object relations and represents a reflection of child-mother relationship with its attachment or separation dynamics. Psychological models of religion (religious experience) are connected to the phenomenological approach shared by humanistic, existential and transpersonal psychology.All these theoretical backgrounds conceive the religiousness and spirituality as the core characteristic of the basic human potential. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 29 **Lesson 10** **THEORIES OF RELIGION --ll** **Topic 037-040** **Topic 037:Evolutionary Theories** Evolutionary behavioral science confuses correlation with causation.Evolutionary assumptions are not testable, theories are not falsifiable. Evolutionary hypothesis are primarily post-hoc storytelling -- „just-so "stories. Naturalistic fallacy, racism, sexism, status-quo justification, moralistic fallacy, justification of xenophobia, justification of rape, etc. Natural selection has stopped for our species, so humans are no longer evolving natural selection favors the survival of the species, genetic determinism, and reductionism.The products of evolution must be present at birth (or must emerge very early in development). Evolutionary psychologists think that everything is an adaptation. If a trait is not an adaptation, it's not evolved.Intentional maximization of fitness, confusion between individual intention and adaptation's design, selfish gene -- selfish person. Its models/findings are not relevant to my research/field.Evolutionary psychology doesn't pay enough attention to individual differences. People are rational beings and act rationally.There is no practical value of evolutionary psychology.Theories downplay the uniqueness of individuals. Evolutionary perspective on human behavior is demystifying trained incompetence =(lack of evolutionary knowledge, training, education). Postmodernist worldviews Confusion with social Darwinism Confusion with eugenics and race theories (Europe first half of 20th century) Difficulties with biological terms (e.g. cost, benefit, fitness, selfishness, strategy) **Topic 038:Comte and Religion** **August Comte (1798-1857)** He is known as father of sociology, andwas bornin France.The new social science that Comte sought to establish was first called social physics but he later found the term stolen by another intellectual so he coined the word sociology, a hybrid term compounded of Latin and Greek parts.Comte first used the term sociology in print in 1838.AugusteComteThe "father of sociology;" French philosopher who asserted... that the fate of mankind depends in many respects upon the development of a science of human social relationships.Established scientific disciplines have progressed only to the degree. They have been grounded in facts and experience, and that therefore the needed new science of human social relationships. Comte suggested naming sociology should adopt the study and experimental techniques of the physical sciences. **Law of three stages** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 30 Comte gave law of three stages of rationalization which is discussed below. **Theological Stage:** The theological stage is the first and it characterized the world prior to 1300. Here all theoretical conceptions, whether general or special bear a supernatural impress.At this level of thinking there is a marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. Overall, the theological thinking implies belief in super natural power. **Metaphysical or Abstract Stage:** The metaphysical stage started about 1300 A.D. and was short lived roughly till 1800. It corresponds very roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance. It was under the sway of churchmen and lawyers. This stage was characterized by Defense. Here mind pre-supposes abstract forces. 'Meta' means beyond and physical means material world. Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination. **The Positive or Scientific Stage:** Finally, in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers in an industrial age. The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation. The concept of God is totally vanished from human mind. Human mind tries to establish cause and effect relationship. This stage is governed by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides. At this stage of thought, men reject all supposed explanations in terms either of Gods or essences as useless. **Topic 039: Herbert Spencer and religion** Herbert Spencer born April 27, 1820 in Derby, England, located in the heart of British industry Oldest of nine children, The only to survive **religious/political/philosophical** background Evolution, that is, "a change from a state of relatively indefinite, incoherent, homogeneity to at state of relatively definite, coherent, heterogeneity," was to Spencer that universal process, which explains "... those latest changes which we trace in society and the products of social life." **Social evolution:** Herbert Spencer argued, that the evolution of human societies, far from being different from other evolutionary phenomena, is but a special case of a universally applicable natural law. Sociology can become a science only when it is based on the idea of belief in a social order not conforming to natural law, survives." Spencer held that we cannot know the nature of reality in itself and that there was, therefore, something that was fundamentally "unknowable." (This included the complete knowledge of the nature of space, time, force, motion, and substance.)Spencer claimed, we cannot know anything non-empirical, we cannot know whether there is a God or what its character might be. Though Spencer was a severe critic of religion and religious doctrine and practice--these being the appropriate objects of empirical investigation and assessment--his general position on religion was agnostic. Theism, he argued, cannot be adopted because there is no means to acquire **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 31 knowledge of the divine, and there would be no way of testing it. But while we cannot know whether religious beliefs are true, neither can we know that (fundamental) religious beliefs are false. **Topic 040:Darwinism and Religion** Darwinian biology tells a whole new story of creation, one that cannot be literally reconciled with religious creation stories such as those narrated in the book of Genesis; The evolutionary notion of natural selection seems to eliminate the role of God in creating the various species of life; Darwin's theory of human descent from nonhuman forms of life raises questions about traditional beliefs in human uniqueness, such as the biblical claim that human beings are created "in the image and likeness of God".The prominent role of chance or accidents in evolution raises questions about whether a creator truly cares for the world;the competitive "struggle for existence" inherent in evolution seems at odds with a Universe created by God. Darwin never considered himself the outright atheist that some modern writers have made him out to be. He continued to refer occasionally to the work of a "Creator" who fashioned the Universe and its general laws but who then left its living outcomes to a combination of chance and natural selection. Even now, some people are still reeling from the shock Darwin seems to have delivered to traditional beliefs. For others, however, an appreciation of his ideas deepens and widens their faith in God. When Darwin's On the Origin of Species first appeared, most people in Europe and America read the biblical accounts of origins literally. They thought the world was only around 6,000 years old and all living species had been created separately and in a fixed way at the time of the world's origins. So, can ancient scriptural accounts of the world's creation by God be reconciled with Darwin's new story?? Looks a big question mark??? **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 32 **Lesson 11** **THEORIES OF RELIGION-III** **Topic 041-045** **Topic 041: Applied Ethics** At times, some of the ethical theories may seem overly philosophical for our purposes; we may even wonder why we should study theories that were sometimes developed centuries ago when we are primarily dealing with present-day issues. In other instances, some of the ethical theories may seem overbearing. The theories we look at here, however, are important to help us understand why the decisions we make; decisions are ethical or unethical.For example, a decision may be made that appears on the surface to be unethical, but when we are aware of the philosophical system used in the decision making. We can then understand the root of the decision and, at the very least, see its intended morality.This allows us to view ethical issues from different perspectives. **Applied Ethics** Applied ethics refers to the practical application of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in the areas of private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership. One particular kind of applied ethics that raises distinct concerns is bioethics. Whereas with other kinds of applied ethics. It is usually implicit that the issue involves those who we already know to have moral standing, bioethical issues, such as abortion, often involve beings whose moral standing is much more contentious.Our treatment of non-human animals is another area of bioethical research that often hinges on what moral standing these animals have. As such, it is important that this article devote a section to the issues that arise concerning moral standing and personhood. **Topic 042: Utilitarianism Theory** Utilitarianism is a theory of morality, which advocates actions that foster happiness or pleasure and opposes actions that cause unhappiness or harm.Utilitarianism would say that an action is right if it results in the happiness of the greatest number of people in a society or a group. Utilitarianism, in normative ethics, a tradition stemming from the late 18th- and 19th-century. English philosophers and economists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill according to which an action (or type of action) is right if it tends to promote happiness or pleasure and wrong if it tends to produce unhappiness or pain---not just for the performer of the action but also for everyone else affected by it. Utilitarianism is a species of consequentialism, the general doctrine in ethics that actions (or types of action) should be evaluated on the basis of their consequences. Utilitarianism and other consequentialist theories are in opposition to egoism, the view that each person should pursue his or her own self-interest, even, at the expense of others, and to any ethical theory that regards some actions (or types of action) as right or wrong independently of their consequences. Utilitarianism also differs from ethical theories that make the rightness or **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 33 wrongness of an action dependent upon the motive of the agent for, according to the utilitarian, it is possible for the right thing to be done from a bad motive. Utilitarian's may, however, distinguish the aptness of praising or blaming an agent from whether the action was right. Utilitarianism is an effort to provide an answer to the practical question "What ought a person to do?"The answer is that a person ought to act so as to maximize happiness or pleasure and to minimize unhappiness or pain. **Topic 043:Deontology Theory** Derived from the Greek word "deon" meaning "duty" Deontology is a category of normative ethical theories that encompasses any theory which is primarily concerned with adherence to certain rules or duties. Consequences do NOT matter! Intention is relevant. I am acting a certain way only if I act for the right reason. No matter how morally good their consequences, some choices are morally forbidden. What makes a choice right is its conformity with a moral norm. The Right is said to have priority over the Good. If an act is not in accord with the Right, it may not be undertaken, no matter the Good that it might produce. The employee is responsible for reviewing invoices and expense reports, and the company policy requires original receipts to justify the items on the expense report.However, the employee submitted photocopies only. A clerk with a duty-based ethic may reject the employee's report and require the originals even though other clerks may simply process the report without question. To know that this is the obligation or duty makes breaking the rule morally wrong. Deontological theories hold that actions that are morally right are those in accordance with certain rules, duties, rights, or maxims. Actions can be morally good, required, permitted or forbidden. **A maxim is a principle that underlies or informs an act or set of actions.** Several acts may satisfy the underlying maxim or principle. Famine Example: Maxim: "Try to reduce the risk or severity of world hunger." Actions: Giving money, Volunteer, Start an Organization **Topic 044: Virtue Ethics Theory** Virtue is from the Greek word "arete" means "excellence" It emphasizes on the role of one's character. The virtues that one's character embodies for determining ethical behavior. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 34 Virtues are qualities of doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. It is agent oriented, centered on the agent, the human person. Ethical behaviors flow from characteristics that people acquired overtime. Virtues are developed from childhood to adolescence, and to the final stages of an adult. As individuals develop, their interaction with people in bigger communities expands. The person's character and behavior changes. In choosing what is right which in most cases is difficult, the person continues to develop virtues habits. People will do the right thing because, they have developed virtuous habits. **Importance of Virtue Ethics** The importance of virtue ethics cannot be shown or realized unless and until we understand the moral rules. However, it's not only through understanding, we have to apply these moral values in real life situations in order to become more ethical in decision making.Furthermore, we will become more familiarized with the four major moral values and three theological virtues where all other virtues flowed out from these seven ethical virtues.Virtue ethics plays a vital role in the world of business, because it determined the moral behavior of a person in the organization. **Topic 045: Ethics & Care Theory** **Stages of Moral Development** Kohlberg\'s theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral development, there are two stages. Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development. **Level 1: Preconventional Morality** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 35 Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children\'s decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences for breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level: **Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment):** The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment. **Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange):** At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one\'s own interests. **Level 2: Conventional Morality** The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society.This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality: **Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships):** Often referred to as the \"good boy-good girl\" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being \"nice,\" and consideration of how choices influence relationships. **Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order):** This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one's duty, and respecting authority. **Level 3. Postconventional Morality** At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are: **Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights):** The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. **Stage 6 (Universal Principles):** Kohlberg's final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the post-conventional stages. One analysis found that while stages one to four could be seen as universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages were extremely rare in all populations. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 36 **Reference** Cherry, K. (2021). Kohlberg\'s Theory of Moral Development. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-2795071 **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 37 **Lesson 12** **PEACE,CONFLICT&RELIGION** **Topic 046-048** **Topic 046:Peace and Religion** Religion is a specific fundamental set of beliefs and practices generally agreed upon by several persons or sects. Population of world's most prevalent religions is, Christianity 2.1 billion, Islam 1.6 billion, Hinduism 1.1 billion, and Buddhism 376 million.Social harmony is an ideal state in which the values of a group align with the collective output of the group\'s thoughts, actions and beliefs. Social harmony is generally associated with utopia, a society in which there is no violence or aggressive competition. **Islam** connotes the attainment of peace through submission to Allah or through conformity of his will. Perhaps one of the most important observations to make is that God or Allah in Islam is often referred to as merciful. He is also compassionate. The Quran teaches order, orderliness, morality and human betterment. This can be achieved through the guidance of God, the most merciful and compassionate who has the power to lead men into the straight path. In **Christianity**, reconciliation is an act of God and was initiated by Him through the death of Jesus Christ. God is reconciling the world to Himself. Where disputes arise, the offended is commanded to take initiatives to reach out to the offender and sort out the differences.According to them, Christians are not to keep anger for the entire day; instead, they should seek reconciliation. The offended party is therefore commanded to forgive an indefinite number of times. In **Hinduism**, followers constantly reflect inward and make a commitment to achieve subjugation of desire, renunciation of petty desires and personal motives,Upholding of practical interests, tranquility, self-control, patience, peace of mind, and movement towards liberation from the concerns of this world.Hinduism teaches its followers to practice truth seeking, and upholds moral purification as a constant practice in renewing ones conduct and behavior. **Buddhism** exhorts followers to seek enlightenment. Enlightenment is found through exercising right view, right aspiration, right speech, right conduct, right endeavor, right sound-fullness, and right contemplation. Extremism is discouraged in Buddhism; instead, Buddhists strive to find the middle way in conflict resolution. As part of moral living, Buddhists are prohibited from taking life, from what is not given, from misconduct, from false speech and from intoxicants that lead to clouding the mind, they are exhorted to maintain good relations, behavior and conduct within the community. **Topic 047: Conflict and Religion** There are religious conflicts in the three major religions, Christianity, Islam conflict as well as Judaism which are the most long-term performance, the most intense.Religious conflicts are complex, often together with the national struggle, the state struggles. **The main reasons are:** **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 38 1\. Different doctrines have different values, causing the opposite of ideology. 2\. Representatives of the different economic, political interests, cause the interests of the conflict.In order to survive this lead to the development of other religious forces and external conflicts. 3\. Geographical environment and the peripheral national situation: conflict of which religion will dominate in specific geographic region. 4\. Power of the ruler used by religious organizations, as a political and economic interests of the tool caused by the conflict. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is one of the hot spots in the Middle East. Moreover, there are external factors which worsen it such as country intervention, economy issues and so on, making the complexity of the Israeli-Palestinian. The example of the Iran-Iraq war, whose number of dead is estimated at over 1,500,000.Most recently in July 2014, authorities said over 2,200 people were killed - most of them Palestinians. Religious differences make conflict more likely and more intense. The more diverse a country's religious population, the more violent its domestic conflicts tend to be. Religious differences also make international wars more likely. Religion shapes discrimination against ethnic minorities. Religious and nonreligious discrimination is more likely in states where it is legitimate to use religion in political discourse and in conflicts where religious issues are important. Autocratic regimes are more likely than non-autocratic regimes to discriminate against religious minorities. Autocracies engage in higher average levels of discrimination against ethno-religious minorities than do democracies.One study finds that states are the most autocratic states in the world, based on a measure of the extent to which a state is a liberal democracy as well as on a separate measure of institutional democracy. **Topic 048:Extremism and Religion** In analyzing our societies today, we can no longer ignore the impact on the geo-political situation of countries and regions. Ecology, demography, rights, economy, personal life, international relations, all these elements are in one way or another marked by the upheavals that have come about in the religious sphere. The rise of religious extremism in many of our societies is one phenomenon which not only poses a strong danger and threat to people's lives and security. Even though religious extremism is currently a hotly debated topic, it is often reduced to a one-dimensional construct that is linked to religious violence. Any analysis of the patterns in terrorism faces major challenges simply because of the lack of reliable and comparable data, and the tendency to deal with given threats, nations, and regions. The problem becomes much greater when the analysis attempts to deal with issues as controversial as the links between Islam, extremism, and terrorism.It is far too easy for analysts who are not Muslim to focus on the small part of the extremist threat that Muslim extremists pose to non-Muslims in the West and/or demonize one of the world\'s great religions, and to drift into some form of Islamophobia. **Islamophobia** Islamophobia means blaming Islam for patterns of violence that are driven by a tiny fraction of the world\'s population of Muslims. There can be numerous reasons of Islamophobia including: **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 39 Muslims and by many other factors like population, failed governance, and weak economic development. Deteriorating socio-economic conditions, government policies and outside interference in all South Asian countries have been the primary factors responsible for the rise of extremism in the region. Terrorism and its political consequences have directly and visibly affected interstate relations in South Asia and have also led to destabilization in the region. Extremism is the common factor creating instability throughout the region.If they are willing to tackle their problems, the South Asian states will have to revise their policies of self-justification and redress the grievances of the general population. Socio-economic problems and human security issues need to be accorded the highest priority by governments. These are the main cause of frustration among the masses and particularly among the educated and unemployed youth, who become easy recruits for radical organizations which involve them in their terrorist activities.In addition to individual state efforts to deal with extremism, a concerted regional effort is also required as the problem has an additional external dimension to it. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 40 **Lesson 13** **TERRORISM,JUSTICE&RELIGION** **Topic 049-051** **Topic 049:Terrorism and Religion** Terrorism in the name of religion has become the predominant model for political violence in the modern world. This is not to suggest that it is the only model because nationalism and ideology remain as potent catalysts for extremist behavior. However, religious extremism has become a central issue for the global community. Religious terrorism is a type of religious violence where terrorism is used as a tactic to achieve religious goals or which are influenced by religious identity. In the modern age, after the decline of ideas such as the divine right of kings and with the rise of nationalism, terrorism has more often been based on anarchism and revolutionary politics. Since 1980, however, there has been an increase in terrorist activity motivated by religion.Religion is sometimes used in combination with other factors, and sometimes as the primary motivation. According to Juergensmeyer, religion and violence have had a symbiotic relationship since before the Crusades and even since before the Bible. He defines religious terrorism as *consisting of acts that terrify,-- the ones terrified -- and not by the party committing the act; accompanied by either a religious motivation, justification, organization, or world view. In spectrum of religious terrorism.* Pakistan is one of the most effected countries of the world. In Pakistan, Over the past decade alone, acts of and responses to terrorism have killed more than 26,000 civilians and security forces personnel and 30,000 terrorists.While the casualty rate has begun to recede in 2014, Pakistan still had the fourth highest number of terrorist attacks (1,760) of any country, according to the Institute for Economics and peace. **Topic 050: Justice and Religion** One of the critical elements for a culture of peace is social justice. Perceptions of injustice lead to discontent, non-cooperation, conflict, and war. Religions have a powerful role in shaping ideas of social justice and legitimacy, and also in responding to perceptions of injustice and illegitimacy e.g., human suffering and injustice as the will of God. To maximize the potential of religions to contribute to peace and minimize those that breed war requires understanding these deep, unconscious levels of knowing and cultural formation;this is more elusive and difficult than addressing direct or even systemic forms of violence.Religions have played a vital role in conflict and warfare. We have only to look at current and past wars to see that even when religious differences are not a direct cause, they may play an indirect and interactive role in conflict dynamics. One reason that religions may have played a powerful role in history is that they often carry the archetypes, symbols, stories, and worldviews, through which people shape their identity, designate their deepest questions of meaning, deal with problems of injustice and suffering, and **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 41 develop codes of morality and conduct to meet the requirements of community life because they function at often deep and unconscious levels, people are often unaware of the effect of religious symbols, archetypes and identity systems on their values, choices and behaviors.Nevertheless, people are often prepared to die in order to defend or uphold these symbols, meanings, and identity systems. One reason that religions are often so powerful in war or peace is that they carry the archetypes, images, and symbols of meaning and identity that inform people's thoughts and actions at deep, often unconscious levels.Religions have also contributed significantly to the development of more just, humane, and ecologically responsible societies. **Topic 051: Forgiveness and Religion** Subscribing to a pervasive role of religion, and believing God forgives are primary factors promoting one\'s propensity to forgive both oneself and others. These factors have varying influence on interpersonal forgiveness compared to self‐forgiveness and further illuminate the differences between the two processes.A person\'s religious beliefs and orientations directly, in addition to other dimensions of religion, such as affiliation, frequency of religious activity, and official religious teachings play an important role in shaping person's personality **What is Forgiveness?** "Forgiveness is a decision to let go of the desire for revenge and ill-will toward the person who wronged you; it is the act of good will. Forgiveness is also a natural resolution of the grief process -- a necessary acknowledgment of pain and loss.Most world religions include teachings on forgiveness, which provide guidance for the practice of forgiveness. **Examples of Forgiveness** The concept of forgiveness might differ, but it still calls for love and pure heart. Here are some examples of forgiveness understood by different religions.In **Islam** forgiveness is a prerequisite for genuine peace. Forgiveness is held as the better course of action whenever possible describe in a quote from the Qu'ran. **"Although the just penalty for an injustice is an equivalent to retribution, those who pardon and maintain righteousness are rewarded by God. He does not love the unjust" (Qur'an 42:40)** According to **Judaism** if a person caused harm, he/she needs to sincerely apologize. Then the wronged person is religiously bound to forgive. However, even without an apology, forgiveness is considered a pious act. According to **Christian** teachings forgiveness plays an important role in spiritual life. The final words uttered by Christ on the cross showed the whole world the importance of forgiveness that resonated through time.The term forgiveness used to forgive people who have done wrong "to pardon", just as Allah will forgive people on the Day of Judgment for things which they have done. Muslims believe no person is perfect, and everyone is capable of wrongdoing and deserves forgiveness. **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 42 **Lesson 14** **RECONSILIATION, TOLERENCE & RELIGION** **Topic 052-055** **Topic 052: Reconciliation and Religion** Reconciliation is the process of adversaries working towards good relationships after a conflict has taken place. Engaging in this process involves listening, understanding and humanizing "the other". There exists a well-known narrative when it comes to religions and reconciliation, namely. The core business of religions is to try and understand the mechanisms of reconciliation between heaven and earth.The material conflicts, which evolve around material and dividable assets. Identity conflicts, which involve deep-seated hatred originating in the feeling of at least one of the sides that the other has usurped their legitimate rights. The material conflicts can be brought to an end through traditional conflict resolution techniques. But the identity conflicts need "track two" diplomacy strategies, and particularly forgiveness in order to reach reconciliation. **Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation** Conflict resolution as a means of ending rivalries between nation-states has mainly been examined within the framework of the realist paradigm. When pushed, by realistic power calculations, to terminate their conflict, the rivals will direct their efforts at resolving the conflict usually through compromise and contractual agreements. The conflict resolution approach "presumes that conflicts are never wholly zero-sum \... an integrative outcome whereby all parties gain much \[but not all,\] of what they need or want\".Studies from a cognitive perspective, conflict resolution is defined as a 'political process through which the parties in conflict eliminate the perceived incompatibility between their goals and interests and establish a new situation of perceived compatibility.' As a consequence, religions can rely on a rich wisdom reservoir of sources and practices to assist them in the reconciliation of conflicts on earth.It is thus most common for them to call on their faithful to reconcile with each other in cases of conflicts.Forgiveness, basically a religious concept, is a necessary (though not sufficient) condition for bringing about reconciliation in identity conflicts. **Topic 053: Protest and Religion** Religion's effect on individual's tendency to engage in protests is influenced both by the resources available to citizens at the individual level and opportunities provided to religious groups and organizations at the broader level.Social protest has become increasingly common in the U.S. and other western democracies, and it has also become more widely accepted by the general public as a legitimate form of political activity. The global change in religious leaders, institutions, and ideologies creates an opening for faith to show up at protests. However, like the nature of the global "transformation" religion's presence and impact on nature of protests are diverse.History of the world is full of protests on the basis of **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 43 religious beliefs and practices. Same like that Pakistan has also a long history of protests by the religious and sectarian leaders and followers. **Most of the protests in Pakistan were against:** Issues of Blasphemy Laws Images of Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W) by the international Artists Conflict between Palestrin and Israel America's Drone attacks on Madras's International Religious protests: In 2013, in Turkey and Iran, the protesters were motivated, in part, by antagonism against government policies that they felt forced religious standards on personal behavior. In other cases, religion was part of the protests themselves, including Christian and Jewish clergy participation in the Occupy Movement, Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox clergy and moderate Muslim and Christian support for the protests in Tahrir Square. A mosque adjoining Tahrir became an important medical clinic, and Muslim clergy urged their congregations to join the protests after Friday prayers. In the global era, the citizen-based political protests of civil society are laced with elements of religion. **Topic 054:Tolerance and Religion** Every religion in the world gives their followers theremain tolerate and accepts other's point of view but it is also interesting that historically there were religions which based the wars between states.The tolerance attitude can be regarded as a way of managing conflicts in a society of diverse differences. These differences-religious, ethnic, cultural, or moral differences are unlikely that everyone is willing to accept the difference that exists in life. Hence, conflicts or crises in life can occur when coercion arises from one group to another. In addition, tolerance is also a prerequisite for anyone who wants a safe and peaceful. With that, there will be good interactions and understanding among religious communities. The definition of tolerance in respect and willingness to accept different views may be appropriate in the context of interaction between multi-religious communities.Due to religious tolerance does not mean that one should be subject to other religious claims or force other believers to accept any specific religion. But religious tolerance is an attitude of respect for other religions, and is ready to hear and try to understand other religious teachings or principles that can be formed through discussions, dialogues and reading. With the hope that through this understanding and attitude, it is able to form ethical relationships between different religions as in Malaysia and Indonesia. In the Quran tolerance is viewed a necessary prerequisite for coexistence. It assumes social, cultural and religious differences that require toleration, even if these differences do not meet with the approval of the parties involved.Tolerance without greater acceptance indicates a sense of conditioned approval.However, the Quran views the tolerance as an important starting point in establishing greater peace. The Quran seeks to establish peace between various religious communities and acknowledges differences of belief and cultures.It places great emphasis in **SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION (SOC614) VU** 44 maintaining good relations between adherents of various religions because according to the Quran, religious freedom is an important basis for sustainable peace. The Quran calls all believers to 'enter into complete peace and follow not the footsteps of devil' (al-Baqarah verse 208). This aspect is highlighted in the Quranic discourse on tolerance. **Topic 055: Social Control and Religion** Religion is an agent of social control and thus strengthens social order. Religion teaches people moral behavior and thus helps them learn how to be good members of society. There are two types of Social control in Societies, Formal Social Control System Informal Social Control system Religion plays equal role in all these two social control systems.Social control is the study of the mechanisms, in the form of patterns of pressure, through which society maintains social order and cohesion. These mechanisms establish and enforce a standard of behavior for members of a society and include a variety of components, such as shame, coercion, force, restraint, and persuasion. Durkheim proposed that religion has three major functions in society: it provides social cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs. Social control aims to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity and control in society. He was deeply interested in the problem of what held complex modern societies together. Religion, he argued, was an expression of social cohesion. Social control is typically employed by group members in response to anyone it considers deviant, problematic, threatening, or undesirable, with the goal of ensuring conformity. It is a broad subfield of sociology that involves criminologists, political sociologists, and those interested in the sociology of law and punishment. Social control is exercised through individuals and institutions, ranging from the family, to peers, and to organizations such as the state,

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