Methods of Legitimizing Rule (1450-1750) PDF

How did rulers use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule? LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3.2.A: Explain how rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power in land-based empires from 1450 to  TOPIC 3.2 Empires: Administration 14...

How did rulers use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule? LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3.2.A: Explain how rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power in land-based empires from 1450 to  TOPIC 3.2 Empires: Administration 1450-1750 Learning Objective: Explain how rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power in land-based empires from 1450 to 1750. Historical Examples You Must Know: Bureaucratic elites or military professionals: Ottoman devshirme, Salaried samurai Religious ideas: Mexica practice of human sacrifice, European notions of divine right, Songhai promotion of Islam Art and monumental architecture: Qing imperial portraits, Incan sun temple of Cuzco, Mughal mausolea and mosques, European palaces, such as Versailles Tax-collection systems: Mughal zamindar tax collection, Ottoman tax Centralizing Authority Monarchies in Europe by 16th Century ○ centralization of power by controlling taxes ○ Controlled the army, and some aspects of religion Elsewhere ○ different methods were used to solidify authority ○ Inca built temples, ○ In Japan paying the military elite a salary ○ Ottoman forcibly established a captive governmental bureaucracy Rulers of empires in the years 1450 to 1750 developed methods for assuring they maintained control of all the regions of their empires. Divine Right of Kings in Europe Divine rights of kings (God decided that king was in charge - so to challenge the king was to challenge God) ○ England's King James I A king was a political and religious authority. James believed himself outside of the law and any earthly authority Saw any challenge toward him as a challenge to God. Justices of the Peace (the King’s legal enforcers) ○ selected by the landed gentry to "swear that as Justices of the Peace …” ○ Their job was to maintain peace in the counties of England ○ Settled some legal matters ○ Carried out the monarch's laws. ○ became among the most important and powerful groups in the kingdom. 1689, England's rulers William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, which assured individual civil liberties. Legal process was required before someone could be arrested and detained. Guaranteed protection against tyranny of the monarchy Absolutism in France The French government became more absolute The king, with complete authority—in the 17th and 18th centuries. Henry IV (ruled 1589—1610) of the House of Valois listened to his advisor Jean Bodin, who advocated the divine right of the monarchy. Louis XIII (ruled 1610—1643) and his minister Cardinal Richelieu moved to even greater centralization of the government developed intendants, ○ Intendants were royal officials—bureaucratic elites— sent out to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government. ○ Sometimes called tax farmers because they oversaw the collection of various taxes in support of the royal governments The Sun King, Louis XIV (ruled 1643—1715), ○ theory of divine right ○ He wanted to hold absolute power and expand French borders. ○ Louis declared that he was the state: "L'etat, c'est moi." ○ Combined the lawmaking and the justice system in his own person—he was absolute. ○ He kept nobles close to him in his palace at Versailles, making it difficult for them to act independently or plot against him. Reigning in control of the Russian Empire Social hierarchy in Moscow was almost static—much as it had been in Kievan Russia earlier. Boyars - noble landowning class stood at the top of the social pyramid. Below them were the merchants. Last and most numerous were the peasants, who would gradually sink more and more deeply into debt and, as a result, into serfdom. ○ Serfs were peasants who received a plot of land and protection from a noble. ○ Serfs were bound to that land and had little personal freedom. ○ Transfers of land ownership to another noble included control of the serfs The Efforts of Ivan IV ○ The boyar class experienced tensions with the rulers similar to the tensions between nobles and rulers in Western Europe. ○ Boyars of Novgorod had opposed the expansionist policies of Ivan I V ○ Ivan punished them after his forces defeated Novgorod. confiscated the lands of his boyar opponents and forced them and their families to move to Moscow. Like Louis XIV, he wanted to keep an eye on the nobility. Ivan established a paramilitary force loyal to him called the oprichnina. ○ Dressed in black and traveling quickly on horseback ○ Fiercely loyal ○ Picked from lower-level bureaucrats and merchants to assure their loyalty to Ivan rather than to the boyars. ○ The oprichnina's methods would be reflected later in the development of the Russian secret police. Peter the Great The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after a period of turmoil following Ivan's death in 1584. Autocratic control of the Romanovs, three main groups in Russia had conflicting desires and agendas ○ Church, focused on conserving traditional values and beliefs ○ Boyars, desiring to gain and hold power; ○ Members of the tsar's royal family. Peter the Great (ruled 1682—1725) ○ To gain full control of the throne, Peter had to defeat his half-sister Sophia and her supporters a boyar-led elite military corps called the Streltsy. ○ Consolidated power by forcing Sophia into a convent. ○ The Streltsy rebelled against Peter's reign, so he temporarily disbanded them and then integrated them into Russia's regular army. ○ Known as the Defender of Orthodoxy ○ Lost the support of the Russian clergy over his reforms. Peter reorganized the Russian government by creating provinces (first 8 and later 50 administrative divisions). ○ Provincial officials received a salary ○ Replaced the old system of local officials "feeding off the land" (getting money through bribes, fees, and taxes), ○ Another government reform was the creation of a senate, a council to advise government officials when Peter was away. Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire To ensure their control over large areas sultans used a selection system called devshirme to staff their military and their government. ○ Began in the late 14th century and expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries, ○ Christian Boys ages 8 to 20 were taken each year from conquered Christian lands in Europe. ○ Developed from an earlier system of slavery in the Ottoman Empire. In both systems, slaves were considered tribute owed to the empire after conquest ○ Since Islamic law prohibited enslavement of "people of the Book and Jews” Christian boys were forcibly removed from their familie ○ Taught various skills in politics, the arts, and the military and received a very high level of education. ○ Janissaries, formed elite forces in the army. ○ Other groomed to become administrators of territories; some were scribes, tax collectors, and even diplomats. ○ Indoctrinated to be fiercely loyal to the sultan Centralizing Control in East and South Asia The Ming Dynasty in China wanted to erase the influence of Mongol rulers of the Yuan Dynasty. ○ Brought back the traditional civil service exam ○ improved education by establishing a national school system ○ reestablished the bureaucracy Later part of Qianlong's reign ○ Bureaucracy became corrupt, levying high taxes on the people. ○ Used harsh military control to put down a rebellion against these developments and maintain its authority. Consolidating Power in Japan Military leaders called shoguns ruled Japan in the emperor's name from the 12th to the 15th centuries. Conflict between landholding aristocrats called daimyo left Japan in disarray. ○ Each daimyo had an army of warriors (known as samurai) ○ Wanted to conquer more territory; and power to rule his fiefdoms as he saw fit. ○ The samurai were salaried, paid first in rice and later in gold, which gave them significant economic power. ○ Gunpowder weapons helped a series of three powerful daimyo to gradually unify Japan. Period of Great Peace. -Tokugawa shogunate set about reorganizing to centralize control over what was essentially a feudal system. Japan was divided into 250 hans (territories) each controlled by a daimyo who had his own army and was fairly independent. ○ Tokugawa government required that daimyo have residence also in the capital ○ If the daimyo himself was visiting his home territory, his family had to stay in Tokyo, essentially as hostages Consolidating Mughal Power in South Asia Ruling from 1556 to 1605, Akbar proved to be the most capable of the Mughal rulers. ○ Defeated Hindu armies and extended his empire southward and westward. ○ Established an efficient government and a system of fairly administered laws. ○ Paid government officials called zamindars were in charge of specific duties, such as taxation, construction, and the water supply. Later given grants of land rather than salaries Were permitted to keep a portion of the taxes paid by local peasants, who contributed one third of their produce to the government. The system worked well under Akbar. ○ Under the rulers who came after him, though, the zamindars began to keep more of the taxes that they collected. ○ With this money, they built personal armies of soldiers and civilians loyal to them. Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art European governments sought to legitimize the authority of the monarch through the idea of the divine right of monarchy. ○ Built impressive structures, such as the Palace of Versailles in France, to demonstrate their power and glory. ○ French Architecture - The spacious and elegant palace at Versailles became a political instrument. ○ Louis XIV entertained the nobles there and kept them from conducting business elsewhere ○ Louis XIV's grand buildings at Versailles helped legitimize his power. ○ During the rule of Louis XIV, some 1,000 employees worked in the palace or on the grounds. Governments in other parts of the world followed similar patterns to consolidate and legitimize their authority Peter and St. Petersburg When Peter the Great seized lands on the Baltic Sea from Sweden moved the Russian capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg ○ Architects laid out streets in a rectangular grid ○ Peasants and Swedish prisoners of war were forced to work ○ famous Winter Palace. ○ Designed in a European rather than a Byzantine style to show Peter's admiration of Europe and its rulers. Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art Askia Mohammad I, or Askia the Great, came to power in 1493. ○ Claimed his predecessor, Sunni Ali, was not a faithful Muslim ○ Like Mansa Musa of Mali, Askia the Great promoted Islam throughout his kingdom ○ Made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca. ○ Under his leadership, Songhai became the largest kingdom in its day in West Africa. ○ Askia made Islam Songhai's official religion in an attempt to unite his empire. ○ To legitimizing his rule through promoting Islam, he also supported an efficient bureaucracy to bring the empire together. Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art India produced a number of magnificent architectural accomplishments, ○ Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan (ruled 1628 1658) as a tomb for his wife. ○ Mughal rulers also beautified Delhi and had forts built. ○ Mughal India combined the arts of Islam (calligraphy, illumination of manuscripts, and ceramics) with local arts to create magnificent, airy structures with decorative geometric designs. Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements ○ Ottoman arts, culture, and economy showed continuities, though they now legitimized the rule of the Ottomans. ○ Constantinople, renamed Istanbul, remained the western end of the overland Silk Roads ○ Grand Bazaar there continued to be full of foreign imports. ○ Coffeehouses, although banned by Islamic law, continued to do a thriving business throughout the towns of the empire. Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art Istanbul grew more beautiful and expanded ○ Royal residence of the sultans, Topkapi Palace. Mehmed II (lived 1432—1481) began construction on this landmark ○ Suleiman I (lived 1494—1566) ordered many mosques, forts, and other great buildings constructed in the cities under his control. ○ The magnificent Suleymaniye Mosque. ○ Istanbul remained a center of arts and learning. ○ Poets and scholars from across Asia met in coffeehouses and gardens. Cultural contributions of the Ottomans included the restoration of some of the glorious buildings of Constantinople ○ Cathedral of Saint Sophia (which the Ottomans turned into a grand mosque). From the time of Mehmed II, who established a workshop for their production, Ottoman miniature paintings and illuminated manuscripts became famous. Financing Empires In all of the world's empires, raising money to fund the goals of imperial expansion and extend state power was a key endeavor. Taxation in Russia Peter established new industries owned by the state ○ Shipyards in St. Petersburg and iron mines in the Ural Mountains. ○ Encouraged private industries such as metallurgy [technology of metal products], woodwork, gunpowder, leather, paper, and mining. ○ Brought in Western European naval engineers to build ships according to Western Models. ○ When industrialization failed to bring in the revenue Peter needed for his military ventures, he raised taxes and began to compel workers to work in the shipyards—a sort of urban extension of serfdom. ○ In 1718, the tax on land in Russia was replaced by a tax on heads (individuals), and peasants became more oppressed than ever. Financing Empires Ottoman and Mughal Taxation To finance an economy backed by a powerful military, the Ottomans levied taxes on the peasants and used tax farming to collect it. local officials and private tax collectors distant from the central government grew wealthy and corrupt from skimming money from the taxes in their areas Agricultural villages continued to be burdened with the upkeep of officers and troops. Tax Collection in the Ming Dynasty Tax collection was the responsibility of private citizens Wealthy families in charge of the collection of land taxes in their area of the countryside. Land taxes made up the bulk of the taxes collected and the rates tended to be low. Taxes were collected in the form of grains and, later, silver. ○ Some grains were stored in local facilities. ○ Others were sent on the Grand Canal to military locations. ○ The state also collected taxes on salt, wine, and other goods. ○ For many years, the vaults stored a surplus of grains. After about 1580, wars, extravagant imperial spending, and the repression of rebellions left the dynasty in bankruptcy. Financing Empires Tributes from other states were collected as a way to demand recognition of their power and authority. ○ Typically as a form of wealth, tributes were given as a sign of respect, submission, or allegiance. ○ Korea was a tributary state for China. The Mexica had extensive tributary arrangements from the people they conquered ○ Most Aztec citizens, merchants, and artisans paid taxes. ○ An Aztec official was stationed in each capital to collect tributes from local officials. The Songhai Empire also had tributary states. ○ Askia the Great assigned governors and officials to preside over tributary states in the Niger Valley. ○ As long as local officials obeyed Songhai policies, they could rule their districts.