Radiation Protection (Stage 2) - 1st Lecture - 2024-2025 PDF

Radiation Protection ‫ اﻟﺨﻄﻮة اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬The Second Stage First Semester – First Lecture ‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ اﻷول – اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮة اﻷوﻟﻰ‬ 2024 - 2025 Asses. Prof.: Mahmoud Abdelhafez Kenawy  2ndStage...

Radiation Protection ‫ اﻟﺨﻄﻮة اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬The Second Stage First Semester – First Lecture ‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ اﻷول – اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮة اﻷوﻟﻰ‬ 2024 - 2025 Asses. Prof.: Mahmoud Abdelhafez Kenawy  2ndStage ‫ترجمه فاطمة‬ Radiation Protection 1st Lecture :‫اﻟﻤﺨﻄﻄﺎت اﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻠﻴﺔ‬ OUTLINES: ‫ﺑﻨﻴﺔ‬.‫اﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬ Atomic Theory..‫اﻟﺬرة‬ Structure of Atom. NA Avogadro’s number =6.022×1023 Atom/mol =6.022×1023 mol-1 kilometers / C Speed of light in vacuum =3×108 m/s =300,000 second coulomb e Electron charge =1.6 × 1019 Ampere. Second =1.6 × −1910 kilograms kilograms me Electron rest mass =0.511 Mev/c2 =9.109×10−31 kilograms Mev/c2 mp Proton rest mass =938.2 Mev/c2 =1.67262 x 10-2 mn Neutron rest mass =939.3 Mev/c2 =1.67262 x 107 -2 u Atomic mass unit =931.5 Mev/c2 =931.5 ‫ﻋﺪد أﻓﻮﺟﺎدرو ﺳﺮﻋﺔ‬ 7 ‫اﻟﻀﻮء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺮاغ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ‬ ‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺳﻜﻮن‬ ‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺳﻜﻮن‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮن ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺳﻜﻮن‬ ‫اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮون وﺣﺪة اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬ -1-  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ‫اﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬ ‫ ﻓﺴﻴﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻄﻊ أﺻﻐﺮ‬،‫ وﻛﺎن اﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻫﻮ أﻧﻪ إذا ﻗﻄﻊ اﻟﻤﺮء ﺷﻴ ًﺌﺎ ﺑﺴﻜﻴﻦ‬.‫ﻧﺸﺄت ﻓﻜﺮة اﻟﺬرة ﻷول ﻣﺮة ﻣﻊ اﻹﻏﺮﻳﻖ‬ ‫ وﺑﺪا ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ أﻧﻪ إذا اﺳﺘﻤﺮ اﻟﻤﺮء ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬه‬.‫ واﺳﺘﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ وﺳﻴﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻄﻊ أﺻﻐﺮ وأﺻﻐﺮ‬.‫ﻣﻦ اﻷﺻﻞ‬ Atomic Theory ‫ أﻃﻠﻘﻮا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻘﻄﻊ‬.‫ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮن ﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻗﻄﻌﻬﺎ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ‬.‫ ﻓﺴﻴﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ‬.‫"اﻟﺬرات" واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺠﺰﺋﺔ‬ The idea of an atom first originated with the Greeks. The thinking was that if one were to cut an object with a knife, one would get pieces that are smaller than the original. Keep this process up and one gets smaller and smaller pieces. It seemed logical that if one continued this process long enough one would reach a point. Where one has a piece that cannot be cut further. They called these pieces “Atoms” which means indivisible. ‫ أﻋﻄﻰ ﺟﻮن داﻟﺘﻮن ﻫﺬه اﻟﻔﻜﺮة دﻓﻌﺔ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ‬،‫وﻓﻲ وﻗﺖ ﻻﺣﻖ ﻣﻦ أواﺋﻞ اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻗﺘﺮاﺣﻪ أن اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ذرات وأن ﻫﺬه اﻟﺬرات ﻫﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﺪات اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬ ‫ ﻃﻮر ﺗﻮﻣﺴﻮن ﻓﻜﺮة ﻣﻔﺎدﻫﺎ أن اﻟﺬرة ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬،1904 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬.‫ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺘﺴﺎو داﺧﻞ ﻛﺮة ﻣﺮﻧﺔ ﻣﺤﺎﻃﺔ ﺑﺤﺴﺎء ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ‬ ٍ ‫إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺛﺮة ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻏﻴﺮ‬ ُ.‫ﻟﻤﻮازﻧﺔ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون‬ ،1911 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬.‫وﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻔﻜﺮة ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮدﻧﻎ اﻟﺒﺮﻗﻮق‬ ‫اﻓﺘﺮض اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻲ رذرﻓﻮرد أن اﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬرة ﺗﺘﺮﻛﺰ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻳﺔ‬.‫ﺿﺨﻤﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻨﻮاة وأن اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻨﻘﺎط اﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪة‬ -Later in the early 19th century John Dalton gave this idea a shot in the arm by proposing that matter is composed of atoms and that these atoms are the basic units of chemical reactions. -In 1904, Thompson develops the idea that an atom was made up of electrons scattered unevenly within an elastic sphere surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electron's charge. It is called the plum pudding model. -The British physicist Rutherford postulated, in 1911, that the positive charge in an atom was concentrated in a central massive point called the nucleus and that the negative electrons were situated at some remote points. -2-  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ‫ﺑﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺬرة‬ ‫ ﻧﻮاة ﻣﺤﺎﻃﺔ ﺑﺴﺤﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ‬:‫ ﺗﺨﺒﺮﻧﺎ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺬرة أﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﻴﻦ‬.‫اﻟﺬرة ﻫﻲ اﻟﻠﺒﻨﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﺎدة‬ ً ‫ ﺗﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﻨﻮاة اﻟﺘﻲ اﻛﺘﺸﻔﻬﺎ‬.‫ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻨﻮاﺣﻲ ﻟﻠﻜﻮاﻛﺐ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪور ﺣﻮل اﻟﺸﻤﺲ‬ ‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ اﻋﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﻮﺿﻊ‬.‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫ ﻓﻘﻂ اﻟﻨﻮع اﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﺷﻴﻮﻋً ﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﺟﻴﻦ ﻻ ﻳﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫رذرﻓﻮرد ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮوﺗﻮن واﺣﺪ أو أﻛﺜﺮ وﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت‬ Structure of Atom.‫ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت‬ Atom is the basic building block of all matter. A simple theory of the atom tells us that it consists of Two Components: a Nucleus surrounded by an Electron cloud. The situation can be considered as being similar in some respects to planets orbiting the sun. The nucleus discovered by Rutherford is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons. Only the most common variety of hydrogen has no neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. The protons have a positive electric charge..‫ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت ﻟﻬﺎ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ‬ The electrons have a negative electric charge..‫ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻟﻬﺎ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ‬.‫ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬ The neutrons have no electric charge. ‫ﻳﺸﻴﺮ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ اﻟﺬري ﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺎ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻧﻮاﺗﻪ )ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت‬.(‫واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت( وﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﺣﻮﻟﻪ )ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺪار‬ The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its nucleus (including protons and neutrons) and the arrangement of the electrons around it (in the orbital). :‫ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت‬ Protons:.‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت ﻫﻲ ﺟﺴﻴﻤﺎت دون ذرﻳﺔ ﻣﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ إﻳﺠﺎﺑﻴﺎ‬ Protons are positively charged subatomic particles..‫ ﻛﻮﻟﻮﻣﺐ‬10-19× 1.602+ ‫ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺎدل ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ًﺒﺎ‬،(1e) ‫ﺷﺤﻨﺔ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮن ﻫﻲ‬ The charge of a proton is (1e), which corresponds to approximately +1.602 × 10-19 coulomb. ‫اﻟﻌﺪد اﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ‬.‫ ﻣﺮة‬1800 ‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت أﺛﻘﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﺑﺄﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮﺟﺮام‬27-10 × 1.672 ‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮن ﺗﺴﺎوي ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ًﺒﺎ‬ The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-27 Kilograms. Protons are ‫ذرات اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻳﺴﺎوي داﺋﻤً ﺎ‬.‫اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﺬري ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺼﺮ‬ over 1800 times heavier than electrons. The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always equal to the atomic number of the element. Neutrons: :‫ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫ ﻛﺠﻢ‬27-10×1.674 ‫ أي‬،‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮون ﺗﺴﺎوي ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ًﺒﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮن‬.‫ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺎ وﻻ ﺗﺤﻤﻞ أي ﺷﺤﻨﺔ‬ ً ‫اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت ﻫﻲ ﺟﺴﻴﻤﺎت ﻣﺘﻌﺎدﻟﺔ‬ The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton, i.e., 1.674×10-27kg. Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge. -3-  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ‫اﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ واﺣﺪ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﻋﺪد اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت وﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻓﻲ‬ Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the number of neutrons present in their respective nuclei..‫ﻋﺪد اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻲ أﻧﻮﻳﺘﻬﺎ‬ Electrons: :‫ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫ ﻛﻮﻟﻮﻣﺐ‬19-10 × 1.602- ‫ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﺘﺮب ﻣﻦ‬،1e- ‫ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻫﻲ‬- The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19 coulomb..‫ ﻛﺠﻢ‬31-10 × 9.1 ‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﺗﺴﺎوي ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ًﺒﺎ‬- The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31kg. Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons, they are ignored when.‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺠﺎﻫﻠﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﺴﺎب ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺬرة‬،‫ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻧﻈﺮًا ﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻬﻤﻠﺔ‬- calculating the mass of an atom. Definition: :‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬.‫ ﻳﺘﻢ إﻋﻄﺎء ﻛﺘﻞ اﻟﺬرات واﻟﺠﺴﻴﻤﺎت اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻼﺋﻢ ﻓﻲ وﺣﺪة اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬:‫وﺣﺪة اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬ Atomic mass unit: Masses of atoms and atomic particles are conveniently given in.‫ ﻛﺠﻢ‬27-10×1.674 ‫ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎوي‬،‫ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺬرة‬1/12 ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ وﺣﺪة اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻬﺎ‬،(AMU) ‫ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ وﺣﺪة اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬ terms of atomic mass unit (AMU), an AMU is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 1 26 𝐶 atom, which equal to 1.674×10-27kg. (A) ‫( واﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﻜﺘﻠﻲ‬Z) ‫اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﺬري‬ Atomic Number (Z) and Mass Number (A).‫ وﻳُ ﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻫﺬا اﻟﻌﺪد ﻟﻠﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ وآﺧﺮ‬،‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﺬري ﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻋﺪد اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻴﻪ‬.‫وﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﻜﺘﻠﻲ ﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻋﺪد اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺔ‬ The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of protons in it, and it is used to differentiate one element from another. The mass number of an element is determined by the number of protons and neutrons combined. problem 1: ‫اﺣﺴﺐ ﻋﺪد اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت واﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت‬ Calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in 40 91 Zr Solution: In this case: Z=40; A=91; number of protons = number of electrons = 40 in a neutral atom..‫ذرة ﻣﺤﺎﻳﺪة‬ -4- Number of neutrons= 91-40 =51.  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture :(‫ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻮر اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ )ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮر‬ ‫ وﺟﺪ‬.‫ﻳﺘﻜﻮن ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮر ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮاة ﺻﻐﻴﺮة )ﻣﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ إﻳﺠﺎﺑﻴﺎ( ﻣﺤﺎﻃﺔ ﺑﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺗﺘﺤﺮك ﺣﻮل اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪارات‬.‫ واﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون اﻷﻗﺮب إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ‬،‫ﺑﻮر أن اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮد ﺑﻌﻴ ًﺪا ﻋﻦ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻛﺒﺮ‬ Bohr’s Atomic Theory (Bohr’s model): Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged) surrounded by negative electrons moving around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has more energy, and the electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy. Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom ‫ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺎت ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮر ﻟﻠﺬرة‬.‫ﺗﺒﺪو اﻟﺬرة وﻛﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﻓﺮاغ وﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﺮﻛﺰ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة‬ o The atom looks like a vacuum and its mass concentrated in the nucleus..‫ ﺗﺪور اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت )اﻟﻤﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﺳﻠ ًﺒﺎ( ﺣﻮل اﻟﻨﻮاة اﻟﻤﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ إﻳﺠﺎﺑًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺴﺎر داﺋﺮي ﻣﺤﺪد ﻳﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻤﺪارات أو اﻷﺻﺪاف‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬرة‬ o In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits orُ shells..‫ﻛﻞ ﻣﺪار أو ﻏﻼف ﻟﻪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ وﺗﻌﺮف ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺪارات اﻟﺪاﺋﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﺻﺪاف اﻟﻤﺪارﻳﺔ‬ o Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known as ‫وﻣﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ‬l‫ ﻳﺒﺪأ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻨﻄﺎق ﻣﻦ اﻷﻋﺪاد اﻟﻜﻢ‬.‫( ﻳُﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﻜﻤﻮﻣﻲ‬... n = 1، 2، 3) ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﻌﺪد ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬ orbital shells ‫ وﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬.... N ‫ و‬M ‫ و‬L ‫ و‬K ‫ ﻋﲆ أﻧﻬﺎ أﻏﻠﻔﺔ‬... n = 1، 2، 3، 4 ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﺪارات‬.‫ ﻫﻮ أدﻧﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ‬n = 1 ‫ﺟﺎﻧﺐ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮن‬ ‫ ﻳُﻘﺎل إﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻷرﺿﻴﺔ‬،‫ﻳﺼﻞ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون إﱃ أدﻧﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ‬ o The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…) known as the quantum number. This range of quantum numbers starts from nucleus side with n=1 having the lowest energy level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and when an electron attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.‫ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬرة ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ اﻛﺘﺴﺎب اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ وﻳﻨﺘﻘﻞ‬.‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻓﻘﺪان اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬ o The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level by gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a higher energy level to lower energy level by losing energy. :‫ﺟﺮام ذري – ذرة‬ ‫ﻫﻮ ﻋﺪد اﻟﺠﺮاﻣﺎت ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺐ اﻟﺬري اﻟﺬي ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻳﻪ‬ Atomic gram – atom: is the number of grams of atomic compound that contains.‫ﻋﺪد واﺣﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﻣﻦ ذرات أﻓﻮﺟﺎدرو‬ -5- exactly one Avogadro’s number of atoms.  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ‫ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺪد اﻟﺠﺮاﻣﺎت ﻟﻠﻤﺮﻛﺐ اﻟﺠﺰﻳﺌﻲ اﻟﺬي ﻳﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪد أﻓﻮﺟﺎدرو‬:‫اﻟﺠﺮام اﻟﺠﺰﻳﺌﻲ – اﻟﻤﻮل‬.‫واﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺰﻳﺌﺎت‬ Molecular gram – mole: is the number of grams of molecular compound that contains exactly one Avogadro’s number of molecules. For example: - 1 mole of water is (16+2*1=18 grams) of water. - 1 mole of carbon dioxide is (12+2*16= 44 grams) of CO2. Remark: Number of atoms of an element: 𝑨𝑨 𝒎𝒎 (𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒎𝒎) × 𝑵𝑵 Problem 2: 𝑵 𝑵 = 𝑨𝑨 How much 0.1gram of pure Co-60 of atoms?. Solution: N= 0.1× 6.022 × 1023/60= 0.1 × 1023 atoms ‫ﻟﻤﺎذا ﻻ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة وﻻ ﻳﻬﺮب ﻣﻦ اﻟﺬرة؟‬ Why does an electron not fall in the nucleus; and not run away from the :‫ﺑﺴﺎﻃﺔ‬ atom? ‫ ﻟﺬا ﻓﺈن ﻗﻮة‬.‫ﻻ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﺤﺮك ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪار ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺬب ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻔﻲ ﻹﻋﻄﺎﺋﻪ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰﻳﺔ اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ وإﺑﻘﺎﺋﻪ ﻓﻲ‬ By simply:.‫اﻟﻤﺪار اﻟﺪاﺋﺮي‬ The electron does not fall into the nucleus because it is moving in orbit at high speed. So, the force of attraction due to the nucleus is just strong enough to give it the necessary centripetal force and keep it in the circular orbit. ‫ وﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﻫﺬه اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻋﺒﻮر ﻫﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ إﻻ ﺑﻌﺪ‬.‫ﺗﺪور اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﺣﻮل اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬.‫ﺗﺰوﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ إﺿﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ وﻟﻮ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺰوﻳﺪ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬ The electrons revolve around the nucleus at a fixed energy level. These electrons cannot cross this energy level until extra energy is supplied even if the energy is supplied to the system..‫ ﻛﻞ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﺸﺤﻮن دوار ﻳﺸﻊ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ وﻳﺠﺐ أن ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮاة‬،‫أﻳﻀﺎ‬ ً Also, every revolving charged particle radiates energy and should fall into the nucleus. ‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻤﺪارات اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺪارات اﻟﻤﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻓﻘﻂ ﻫﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮح ﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮاﺟﺪ داﺧﻞ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ ذﻛﺮ ﻧﻴﻞ ﺑﻮر‬.‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻻ ﺗﺴﻘﻂ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة‬.‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺸﻊ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ‬،‫ وﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﺪور اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪارات ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ‬،‫اﻟﺬرة‬ But as Niel’s Bohr stated, only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom and while revolving in discrete orbits, the electrons do not radiate energy. Hence do not fall into the nucleus. Nuclear forces: :‫اﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ‬ Protons and neutrons in nucleus are known as nucleons..‫ﺗﻌﺮف اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﻨﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت‬ -6-  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ً ‫أﻳﻀﺎ‬ ‫ أﻣﺎ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻜﻮارﻛﺎت ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮن ﻓﺘﺴﻤﻰ‬.‫ﻫﻨﺎك ﻗﻮة ﺗﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة‬ ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻘﻮة ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬،e 1+ ‫ وﻷن اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت ﻟﻬﺎ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ‬.‫ واﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ اﻟﺨﻠﻂ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ وﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻘﻮة‬.‫ وﻟﻜﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺪى اﻟﻘﺮﻳﺐ ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﺠﺎذﺑﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻜﻬﺮوﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻴﺔ‬،‫ﺗﻤﻴﻞ إﻟﻰ دﻓﻌﻬﺎ ﺑﻌﻴ ًﺪا‬.‫أﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ واﻷﺳﻠﺤﺔ اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ‬ ً ‫ ﺗﻠﻌﺐ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ دورًا‬.‫اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮى ذرﻳﺔ‬ ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫ﻳﻠﺰم اﻟﻌﻤﻞ )اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ( ﻟﺠﻤﻊ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻌً ﺎ ﺿﺪ ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺮﻫﺎ اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬ ‫ ُﻳﻌﺮف اﻟﻔﺮق ﻓﻲ اﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ‬.‫ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﻨﻮاة أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮع اﻟﻜﺘﻞ اﻟﻔﺮدﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫ﻣﻌً ﺎ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻧﻮاة‬.‫ واﻟﺬي ﻳﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻛﻤﻜﺎﻓﺊ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬،‫ﻋﻴﺐ اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ‬ There is a force that holds nucleons together in a nucleus. For the force that holds quarks together in a nucleon that is also called the strong nuclear force, which is not to be confused with weak nuclear force. Since protons have charge +1 e, they experience an electric force that tends to push them apart, but at short range the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to overcome the electrostatic force. The nuclear force binds nucleons into atomic nuclei The nuclear force has an essential role in storing energy that is used in nuclear power and nuclear weapons. Work (energy) is required to bring charged protons together against their electric repulsion. This energy is stored when the protons and neutrons are bound together by the nuclear force to form a nucleus. The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum total of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons. The difference in masses is known as the mass defect, which can be expressed as an energy equivalent. ‫اﻟﻘﻮة( ﺗﺤﺎﻓﻆ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻋﲆ اﺳﺘﻘﺮارﻫﺎ ﻋﲆ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮة اﻟﻄﺮد اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ اﻟﻀﺨﻤﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﻤﺎة ﻛﻮﻟﻮم( ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ( )اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ‬ The nucleus keeps its stability in spite of huge electric repulsive force( ‫ﻗﻮة‬ ‫()اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ‬named coulomb electric force) between the positive protons compared -7-  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture.‫ وذﻟﻚ ﻟﻮﺟﻮد ﻗﻮى أﺧﺮى ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ دﻣﺞ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ‬،‫إﻟﻰ ﻗﻮة اﻟﺠﺬب اﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮة ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت‬ ‫ ﺗﻨﺠﺬب‬:‫ وﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر‬.‫ وذﻟﻚ ﻷن ﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮًا ﻛﺒﻴﺮًا ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت داﺧﻞ اﻟﻨﻮاة اﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮة‬،‫وﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻘﻮى ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ ﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﻧﻮاة ﻣﻌً ﺎ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﻫﻨﺎك ﻗﻮة ﺟﺬب‬،‫ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬.‫إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت اﻟﺬرة إﻟﻰ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮاة اﻟﺬرة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻜﻬﺮوﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ‬ ‫إﻳﺠﺎﺑﻴﺎ( ورﺑﻂ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت‬ ً ‫ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت )اﻟﻤﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ‬.‫ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬.‫ ﺗﻨﺠﺬب اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاة إﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ‬،(‫واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت )اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت‬ to the small attractive force between the nucleons, due to the presence of other forces working on combining these nucleons called the strong nuclear forces. These forces are named by strong nuclear force, because they have a great effect on the nucleons inside the small nucleus. In summary: the electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by electromagnetic force. Therefore, to bind a nucleus together there must be a strong attractive force of a different kind. It must be strong enough to overcome the repulsion between the (positively charged) protons and to bind both protons and neutrons (nucleons), the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force. Properties of strong nuclear forces: :‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ‬.‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﻛﺎن ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ ﻗﻮة ﻋﻈﻴﻤﺔ‬ They have great power. ‫ ﺑﻞ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻜﻮن ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ )ﺑﺮوﺗﻮن – ﺑﺮوﺗﻮن؛‬،‫ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻮع ﺷﺤﻨﺔ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت‬ ‫ وﻫﻲ ﻗﻮى ﻗﺼﻴﺮة اﻟﻤﺪى )ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻘﻂ‬.(‫ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮون – ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮون؛ ﺑﺮوﺗﻮن – ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮون‬.(‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت ﺻﻐﻴﺮة ﺟﺪًا‬ They do not depend on the type of charge of nucleons, but it may be between them (proton – proton; neutron – neutron; proton - neutron). They are short- :‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬ range forces (work only when space between nucleons is very small). ‫ وﺗﻌﺮف ﺑﺄﻧﻬﺎ‬،‫ ﻫﻲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ رﺑﻂ إﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ أي ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﺬرة اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻳﺪة أو اﻟﻤﺆﻳﻨﺔ‬:‫ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺮﺑﻂ‬-1 Definition:.‫اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻹزاﻟﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻮل ﺣﺪود ﻣﺘﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻃﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺣﺪﻫﺎ‬ 1- Binding Energy: The binding energy of an electron of a given type in any state of a neutral or ionized atom defined as that required energy to remove the electron along successive terms of a spectral series to its limit. ‫ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ "اﻟﻨﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت" ﻫﻲ اﻟﺤﺪ اﻷدﻧﻰ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﻚ "ﺗﻔﻜﻴﻚ" ﻧﻮاة اﻟﺬرة إﱃ ﺑﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎﺗﻬﺎ‬-2.‫ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﻨﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت‬،‫ واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت‬.‫اﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺔ‬ 2- Nuclear binding energy “nucleons” is the minimum energy that is required the nucleus of an atom into its constituent protons ”‫ “ﺗﻔﻜﯿﻚ‬to disassemble.and neutrons, known collectively as nucleons -8-  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎء اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ‬.‫ﺗﻨﺠﺬب اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ‬.‫اﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ‬ Nucleons are attracted to each other by the strong nuclear force. In theoretical nuclear physics. ‫ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﺘﺴﺐ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﺤﺮك اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت ﺑﻌﻴ ًﺪا‬،‫ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ اﻻرﺗﺒﺎط ﻟﻠﻨﻮاة اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺮة ﺗﻜﻮن داﺋﻤً ﺎ ﻋﺪ ًدا ﻣﻮﺟ ًﺒﺎ‬o o The binding energy for stable nuclei is always a positive number, as the.‫ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‬ nucleus must gain energy for the nucleons to move apart from each other. ‫ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻧﺴﺒﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن‬،‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫﺬا اﻟﺴﻴﺎق‬.‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻨﻮوي رﻗﻤً ﺎ ﺳﺎﻟ ًﺒﺎ‬ o Nuclear binding energy is considered a negative number. In this context it.‫ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻋﺪة ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻻ ﻧﻬﺎﺋﻲ‬ represents the energy of the nucleus relative to the energy of the constituent nucleons when they are infinitely far apart. ‫ )وﻫﺬا ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﻷﺣﺠﺎم اﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻮاة اﻟﺬرﻳﺔ‬.‫إن ﻃﺎﻗﺎت وﻗﻮى اﻟﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ أﻛﺒﺮ ﺑﺤﻮاﻟﻲ ﻣﻠﻴﻮن ﻣﺮة ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﻗﺎت رﺑﻂ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت‬ Remark: :‫ ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ‬The nuclear binding energies and forces are on the order of a million.((‫ م‬10-10‫ و‬15-10) ‫واﻟﺬرة‬ times greater than the electron binding energies. (This is because of the relative sizes of the atomic nucleus and the atom (10-15 and 10-10m)). ‫( أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮع‬mnuc) ‫ اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻮاة‬:‫ ﻋﻴﺐ اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ‬-3 3- The Mass defect: The total mass of the nucleus(mnuc) is less than the sum of individual masses of neutrons and protons which in fact constitutes it..‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﺘﻞ اﻟﻔﺮدﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت واﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‬ -9- 2nd Stage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture Mass defect = Theoretical mass – Actual mass This difference in the mass is called mass defect given by equation: ∆𝒎𝒎 = 𝒁𝒁𝒎𝒎𝒑𝒑 + (𝑨𝑨 − 𝒁𝒁)𝒎𝒎𝒏𝒏 − 𝒎𝒎𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝒁𝒁𝒎𝒎𝒑𝒑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 (𝑨𝑨 − 𝒁𝒁)𝒎𝒎𝒏𝒏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 How to calculate binding energy? Once the mass defect is known as mass defect (𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ), you can calculate ∆m Then calculate binding energy from the equation: 𝑬𝑬𝒃𝒃 = (∆𝒎𝒎)𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 … … … … 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 c 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙ℎ𝑡𝑡. 𝒐𝒐𝒈𝒈 𝑬𝑬𝒃𝒃 = 𝒎𝒎𝒈𝒈𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏𝒅𝒅 × 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝑴𝑴𝒅𝒅𝑴𝑴 So we can define the binding energy as: its amount of energy that is equivalent to decrease (loss) in the mass of nucleus constituents. "‫"ﻛﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺎدل اﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻓﻲ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻨﻮاة‬ 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒅𝒈𝒈𝑻𝑻 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏𝒅𝒅𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏𝒈𝒈 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏𝒅𝒅𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒆 𝒅𝒅𝒐𝒐𝒈𝒈 𝒈𝒈𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝑻𝑻𝒅𝒅𝒐𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒎𝒎 𝑬𝑬𝒃𝒃 and binding energy per nucleon = = 𝒈𝒈𝒅𝒅𝒐𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 𝒎𝒎𝒈𝒈𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝑨 Problem 3: Calculate binding energy of ( 𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔𝑪𝑪); consider carbon atom mass is (5.486 × 10-4). In this example, Carbon contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons so A = 12. Because carbon atom have12u (by definition of the atomic mass unit, u); So; 𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 of carbon equal to: 12 - (5.486 × 10-4) = 11.996 u. Now: ∆𝑚𝑚 = 6 × 1.0007276 (mass of proton) + 6 × 1.008665 (mass of neutron) -11.9967 (mass of 12C nucleus) = 0.0989 u 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 = (∆𝑚𝑚)𝑐𝑐 2 = 0.0989 × 931.494 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤𝑀𝑀/𝑐𝑐 2 = 92.2 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤𝑀𝑀 - 10 - 2nd Stage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture ‫اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻻت ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬ ‫ ﯾﻤﺘﺺ اﻟﺠﺴﯿﻢ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧًﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﻮﻓﺮ ﻟﮫ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎص‬ Energy Level Transitions ،‫ ﻧﻈًﺮا ﻷن ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻤﯿﺔ‬.‫اﻹﺿﺎﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﻼرﺗﻔﺎع إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى طﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ‬.‫ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﯿﻦ‬،ΔE ،‫ﻓﯿﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن طﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮن ﻣﺴﺎوﯾﺔ ﺗﻤﺎًﻣﺎ ﻟﻔﺮق اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬ In the process known as absorption, a particle absorbs a photon which provides it the extra energy needed to increase to a higher energy level. Since the energy levels are quantized, the energy of the photon has to be exactly equals to the energy difference, ΔE , between two levels. ℎ𝑐𝑐 𝛥𝛥𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝜐𝜐 = 𝑤𝑤𝑀𝑀. 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 𝜆𝜆 ‫ ﻓﺈن ھﺬا اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﮫ‬،‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﮭﺒﻂ اﻟﺠﺴﯿﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى طﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى طﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ‬ When a particle drops from a higher to a lower energy level, that change in energy is conserved by the creation of a photon due to the transition. This is known as photon emission. This process is depicted above for a particle dropping from a higher energy level, E2, to a lower energy level, E1, and as a result emitting a photon whose energy must equal exactly the energy difference between the two ‫ ﺗﻢ‬.‫ وھﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎث اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮن‬.‫ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ ﺗﻜﻮﯾﻦ ﻓﻮﺗﻮن ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻟﻼﻧﺘﻘﺎل‬ levels, E2−E1=Ephoton. ،E1 ،‫ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى طﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ‬،E2 ،‫ﺗﺼﻮﯾﺮ ھﺬه اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ أﻋﻼه ﻟﺠﺴﯿﻢ ﯾﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى طﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ‬ Definition: ،‫وﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﯾﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻓﻮﺗﻮن ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﺴﺎوي طﺎﻗﺘﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ اﻟﻔﺮق ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﯿﻦ‬.E2−E1=Ephoton Spontaneous emission: is an energy conversion process in which an excited electron or molecule decays to an available lower energy level and in the process gives off a photon. :‫ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ‬ ‫ ھﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺘﺤﻠﻞ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون أو اﻟﺠﺰيء اﻟﻤﺜﺎر إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى طﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ ﻣﺘﺎح وﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﯾﻄﻠﻖ‬:‫اﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎث اﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ‬ - 11 -  2ndStage Radiation Protection 1st Lecture 1 ‫ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬.‫ ﻧﻘﻮل إﻧﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻷرﺿﻴﺔ‬،‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﺟﻤﻴﻊ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬرة ﻋﻨﺪ أدﻧﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﺔ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺬرة أﻗﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ‬ ً ‫ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ‬ ‫ ذﻛﺮﻧﺎ‬.‫ ﻧﻘﻮل إن اﻟﺬرة ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ إﺛﺎرة‬،‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮن إﻟﻜﺘﺮون واﺣﺪ أو أﻛﺜﺮ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ‬.‫اﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻟﺬرة اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮن ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻷرﺿﻴﺔ‬ :‫ ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﻫﺬه اﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻻت إﻟﻰ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أﻧﻮاع‬.‫أن اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ اﻣﺘﺼﺎص أو إﺻﺪار اﻟﻀﻮء‬ When all electrons of an atom are at the lowest possible energy levels and thus the atom possesses the lowest energy it has, we say that it is at the ground state. Fig. 1 shows the electronic configuration of a carbon atom at the ground state. When one or more electrons are at a higher energy level, we say that the atom is at an exciting state. It was mentioned earlier that electrons transit between energy levels by absorbing or emitting light. These transitions are divided into three types: (‫ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ واﺣﺪ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ اﻣﺘﺼﺎص اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮن )اﻟﺸﻜﻞ أ‬- ‫اﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎص اﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ‬ Spontaneous absorption - an electron transit from a lower energy level to a higher one by absorbing a photon (Fig. a) (‫ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻗﻞ )اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ب‬ ً ‫ ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮون ﻓﻮﺗﻮن‬- ‫اﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎث اﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ‬ Spontaneous emission - an electron spontaneously emits a photon to transit from a higher energy level to a lower one (Fig. b) ‫ اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺗﺤﻔﺰ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى‬- ‫اﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎث اﻟﻤﺤﻔﺰ‬ ‫ اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮن اﻟﻮارد وﻧﻈﻴﺮه اﻟﻤﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻟﻬﻤﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻄﻮل اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻲ واﻟﻄﻮر؛ ﻳﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻄﻮل اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻲ‬.‫ﻃﺎﻗﺔ أدﻧﻰ وإﺻﺪار ﻓﻮﺗﻮن‬ ‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎن ﻣﺘﻄﺎﺑﻘﺎن‬،‫ ﻳﺤﻔﺰ اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮن اﻟﺬرة ﻋﻠﻰ إﺻﺪار ﻓﻮﺗﻮن آﺧﺮ‬.‫ﻣﻊ ﻓﺮق اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬.(‫)اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ج‬ Stimulated emission - photons incident into the matter to stimulate the electrons to transit from a higher energy level to a lower one and to emit a photon. The incident photon and their emitted counterparts have the same wavelength and phase; this wavelength corresponds to the energy difference between the two energy levels. A photon stimulates an atom to emit another photon, and hence two identical photons resulted (Fig. c). - 12 -