Bab 2: Cell Biology & Organisation PDF

chapter 2: cell biology & organisation bab 2: biologi sel & organisasi sel Tingkatan https://t.me/biotingkatan4  2.1 Cell Structure & Function / Struktur & Fungsi Sel 2.1.2 Identify the structures of animal and plant cells based on...

chapter 2: cell biology & organisation bab 2: biologi sel & organisasi sel Tingkatan https://t.me/biotingkatan4  2.1 Cell Structure & Function / Struktur & Fungsi Sel 2.1.2 Identify the structures of animal and plant cells based on observations through a light microscope / Mengenal pasti struktur sel haiwan & sel tumbuhan berdasarkan pemerhatian menerusi mikroskop cahaya Micrograph of an animal cell Mikrograf sel haiwan nucleus nukleus plasma membrane cytoplasm membran plasma sitoplasma 2 sel pipi manusia / human cheek cell sel darah ayam / chicken red blood cells  Micrograph of a plant cell Mikrograf sel tumbuhan nucleus nukleus chloroplast cytoplasm cell wall kloroplas sitoplasma dinding sel sel epidermis bawang sel daun Hydrilla sp. epidermal cells of onion cells of Hydrilla sp. leaf plasma membrane 3 membran plasma 2.1.3 Analyse the components of animal and plant cells as seen on micrographs / Menganalisis komponen dalam sel haiwan dan sel tumbuhan seperti yang dilihat pada mikrograf cytoplasm sitoplasma lysosome lisosom k l a mitochondrion mitokondrion ribosome ribosom j plasma membrane membran plasma i b rough endoplasmic reticulum jalinan endoplasma kasar nucleus nukleus h c nucleus nukleus C (i) C (ii) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) chromosome asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA) kromosom d vacuole vakuol g Golgi apparatus jasad Golgi f e centriole smooth endoplasmic reticulum sentriol jalinan endoplasma licin 4 plasma membrane membran plasma h k cell wall dinding sel mitochondrion mitokondrion a d Golgi apparatus jasad Golgi rough endoplasmic reticulum nucleus c b jalinan endoplasma kasar nukleus smooth endoplasmic reticulum e jalinan endoplasma licin g tonoplast / tonoplas f vacuole / vakuol chloroplast kloroplas j i cytoplasm sitoplasma 5  2.1.4 State the main functions of components of animal & plant cells as seen on micrographs / Menyatakan fungsi utama komponen dalam sel haiwan dan sel tumbuhan seperti yang dilihat pada mikrograf Mitochondrion Mitokondrion 1. Rod-shaped or spherical. Berbentuk rod atau sfera. 2. Consists of 2 layers of membranes, which are the smooth outer membrane and folded inner membrane. Terdiri daripada 2 lapisan membran, iaitu membran luar yang licin dan membran dalam yang berlipat-lipat. a. The inner membrane is extensively infolded in order to increase the surface area for the attachment of respiratory enzymes. Membran dalam berlipat-lipat untuk meningkatkan luas permukaan untuk pelekatan enzim yang terlibat dalam respirasi sel. 3. Contains enzymes that play a role in cellular respiration. Mengandungi enzim yang terlibat dalam respirasi sel. 4. Functions: Fungsi: a. A site that generates energy through the glucose oxidation process during cellular respiration. Tapak penjanaan tenaga melalui proses pengoksidaan glukosa semasa respirasi sel. i. Energy released in the form of ATP molecules (adenosine triphosphate) to be used by the cells. Tenaga dijana dalam bentuk molekul ATP (adenosina trifosfat) 6 untuk digunakan oleh sel.  Centriole Sentriol 1. Small cylindrical component that exist in pairs in animal cells. Struktur silinder kecil yang wujud secara berpasangan dalam sel haiwan. 2. Made up of complex arrangement of microtubules. Terdiri daripada susunan mikrotubul kompleks. 3. Does not exist in plant cells. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Tidak wujud dalam sel tumbuhan. 4. Function: Fungsi: a. Forms spindle fibre during cell division in animal cells. Membentuk gentian gelendong semasa pembahagian sel dalam sel haiwan. 7  Golgi apparatus Jasad Golgi 1. Consists of a stack of parallel flattened sacs that are coated by a single cell membrane. Terdiri daripada satu timbunan kantung pipih selari yang setiap satunya dilapisi oleh membran unit tunggal. 2. New membranes is added at one end of the Golgi apparatus and vesicles bud off https://t.me/biotingkatan4 from the other end. Membran baharu ditambah pada satu hujung jasad Golgi dan vesikel digentingkan dari hujung yang satu lagi. 3. Function: Fungsi: a. Processes, modifies, packs and transports chemicals such as protein, carbohydrate and glycoprotein (combination of carbohydrate and protein). Memproses, mengubah suai, membungkus dan mengangkut bahan kimia seperti protein, karbohidrat dan glikoprotein (gabungan karbohidrat dengan protein). 8  Plasma membrane Membran plasma 1. Outer membrane that surrounds the entire content of cell. Membran luar yang menyelaputi keseluruhan kandungan sel. 2. Made of proteins and phospholipids. Dibina daripada protein dan fosfolipid. 3. Thin and elastic film. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Selaput nipis dan kenyal. 4. Partially permeable. Bersifat telap memilih. 5. Function: Fungsi: a. Separates content of cell from the external environment. Mengasingkan kandungan sel daripada persekitaran luar. b. Controls movement of substances into and out of the cell. Mengawal pergerakan bahan ke dalam dan ke luar sel. c. Allows exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and waste materials between cells and their surroundings. Membenarkan pertukaran nutrien, gas respirasi dan bahan buangan antara sel dan persekitarannya. 9  Lysosome Lisosom 1. Small spherical sac enclosed in a single membrane. Kantung sfera kecil yang diselaputi oleh membran tunggal. 2. Contains hydrolytic enzymes. Mengandungi enzim lisozim (enzim pencernaan). 3. Function: https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Fungsi: a. Hydrolyses complex organic molecules such as protein, nucleic acid and lipid. Menghidrolisis molekul organik kompleks seperti protein, asid nukleik dan lipid. b. Breaks down bacteria and components of damaged cells. Menguraikan bakteria dan komponen sel yang rosak. 10  Nucleus Nukleus 1. Largest component in the cell. Komponen paling besar dalam sel. nuclear membrane membran nukleus 2. Spherical, compressed and enclosed in a nuclear membrane with many pores. Berbentuk sfera, padat dan dilingkungi membran nukleus yang nucleoplasm https://t.me/biotingkatan4 mempunyai liang. nukleoplasma 3. Contains chromosomes, nucleolus and nucleoplasm. Mengandungi kromosom, nukleolus dan nukleoplasma. chromatin 4. Function: kromatin Fungsi: a. Controls all cell activities. Mengawal segala aktiviti sel. b. Has chromosome that contain deoxyribonucleic acid nucleolus (DNA). nukleolus Mempunyai kromosom yang mengandungi asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA). i. Determines the cell characteristics and metabolic function. Menentukan ciri sel dan fungsi metabolisme. 11  Ribosome Ribosom 1. Small, compact and spherical granules. Granul kecil, padat dan berbentuk sfera. 2. Consists of protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Terdiri daripada protein dan asid ribonukleik (RNA). 3. Are present on the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum https://t.me/biotingkatan4 or exist freely in the cytoplasm. Terdapat pada permukaan jalinan endoplasma kasar atau wujud bebas dalam sitoplasma. 4. Function: Fungsi: a. Site for protein synthesis. Merupakan tapak sintesis protein. 12  Endoplasmic reticulum Jalinan endoplasma 1. Consists of a system of interconnected folded flattened sacs. Terdiri daripada satu sistem rongga ceper berlipat yang bersambungan. 2. Endoplasmic reticulum membrane is continuous with the nuclear membrane. Membran jalinan endoplasma membentuk jalinan berterusan dengan membran nukleus. 3. 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum: https://t.me/biotingkatan4 2 jenis jalinan endoplasma: a. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to the surface. Jalinan endoplasma kasar mempunyai ribosom yang terlekat pada permukaannya. b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes. Jalinan endoplasma licin tidak mempunyai ribosom. 4. Function: Fungsi: a. The transport system within the cell. Sistem pengangkutan bahan dalam sel. b. Provides a wide surface for enzyme attachment and biochemical reactions. Menyediakan permukaan luas untuk pelekatan enzim dan tindak balas biokimia. c. The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports proteins synthesised by ribosomes. Jalinan endoplasma kasar mengangkut protein yang disintesiskan oleh ribosom. d. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesises and transports glycerol and lipids, and carries out the detoxification of drugs and metabolic by-products. Jalinan endoplasma licin mensintesis dan mengangkut gliserol dan lipid serta menjalankan detoksifikasi dadah dan hasil sampingan metabolisme. 13  Vacuole Vakuol 1. Liquid-filled sac, which is the cell sap. Kantung berisi cecair iaitu sap sel. a. Cell sap contains: Sap sel mengandungi: i. Water / air https://t.me/biotingkatan4 ii. Organic acids / asid organik iii. Sugars / gula iv. Amino acids / asid amino v. Enzymes / enzim vi. Mineral salts / garam mineral vii. Oxygen / oksigen viii. Carbon dioxide / karbon dioksida ix. Metabolic by-products / hasil sampingan metabolisme 2. Surrounded by the tonoplast membrane. Dikelilingi oleh membran tonoplas 3. Young plant cells have many small vacuoles while mature plant cells have a large vacuole. Sel tumbuhan muda mempunyai banyak vakuol bersaiz kecil manakala sel tumbuhan matang mempunyai vakuol bersaiz besar. 4. Vacuole in animal cells is small. Vakuol bagi sel haiwan adalah kecil. 5. Function: Fungsi: a. Water is absorbed into the vacuole plant cell and the cell becomes turgid. Air meresap ke dalam vakuol sel tumbuhan dan sel menjadi segah. b. In unicellular animals, the vacuole contracts during osmoregulation, osmosis and excretion. Dalam haiwan unisel, vakuol mengecut terlibat dalam proses pengosmokawalaturan, osmosis dan perkumuhan. 14  Chloroplast Kloroplas 1. Oval shaped. Berbentuk bujur. 2. Consists of 2 layers of membrane. Terdiri daripada 2 lapisan membran. 3. Contains chlorophyll pigments in the grana that give plants a green https://t.me/biotingkatan4 colour. Mengandungi pigmen klorofil pada grana yang memberikan warna hijau kepada tumbuhan. 4. Function: Fungsi: a. Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and converts it to chemical energy during photosynthesis. Klorofil menyerap cahaya matahari dan menukarkannya kepada tenaga kimia semasa fotosintesis. 15  Cytoplasm Sitoplasma 1. Consists of a jelly-like medium (cytosol) that contains components of the suspended cells. Terdiri daripada medium seperti jeli (sitosol) yang mangandungi komponen sel terampai. 2. Contains organic compounds (protein, lipid and carbohydrate) and inorganic compounds (potassium ions). Mengandungi sebatian organik (protein, lipid dan karbohidrat) serta sebatian tak organik (ion https://t.me/biotingkatan4 kalium). 3. Function: Fungsi: a. Acts as a medium for biochemical reactions in cells. Bertindak sebagai medium bagi tindak balas biokimia dalam sel. Cell wall Dinding sel 1. A strong and rigid outer layer. Satu lapisan luar yang kuat dan tegar. 2. Made from cellulose fibre. Dibina daripada gentian selulosa. 3. Fully permeable. Telap sepenuhnya. 4. Function: Fungsi: a. Maintains the shape of plant cell. Mengekalkan bentuk sel tumbuhan. b. Provides mechanical support to plant cells. 16 Memberikan sokongan mekanikal kepada sel tumbuhan. 2.1.5 Compare and contrast components of animal and plant cells / Membanding dan membezakan komponen antara sel haiwan dengan sel tumbuhan Similarities / Persamaan Both cells are made of nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes. Kedua-dua sel mempunyai nukleus, sitoplasma, membran plasma, jasad Golgi, mitokondrion, jalinan endoplasma dan ribosom. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Differences / Perbezaan Plant cells Animal cells Sel tumbuhan Sel haiwan Has a fixed shape. Does not have a fixed shape. Bentuk sel tetap. Bentuk sel tidak tetap. Has a cell wall. Does not have a cell wall. Mempunyai dinding sel. Tidak mempunyai dinding sel. Has chloroplasts. Does not have chloroplasts. Mempunyai kloroplas. Tidak mempunyai kloroplas. Has a large vacuole. No vacuole / if present, it is small. Mempunyai vakuol yang bersaiz besar. Tiada vakuol / jika ada, saiznya kecil. 17  Plant cells Animal cells Sel tumbuhan Sel haiwan Stores carbohydrate in the form of starch. Stores carbohydrate in the form of glycogen. Simpanan karbohidrat dalam bentuk kanji. Simpanan karbohidrat dalam bentuk glikogen. Does not have a centriole. Has centrioles. Tidak mempunyai sentriol. Mempunyai sentriol. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 18  2.2 Living Processes In Unicellular Organisms / Proses Hidup Organisma Unisel 2.2.1 Conceptualise living processes in unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. / Mengkonseksikan proses hidup organisma unisel seperti Amoeba sp. dan Paramecium sp. contractile vacuole vakuol mengecut https://t.me/biotingkatan4 plasma membrane membran plasma cilium silium anus liang dubur nucleus pseudopodium oral groove nukleus pseudopodium alur mulut Amoeba sp. cytostome food vacuole vakuol makanan sitostom Paramecium sp. nukleus nucleus 19  Living processes Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp. Proses hidup Constantly changes its shape when it Moves using rhythmic cilia beats. encounters obstacles. Bergerak menggunakan pikulan silium Sentiasa berubah bentuk apabila secara beritma. bertemu dengan halangan. Moves by extending out its https://t.me/biotingkatan4 pseudopodium (false feet). Bergerak dengan mengunjurkan pseudopodium (kaki palsu). Movement This is followed by the flow of Pergerakan cytoplasm into the extended pseudopodium. Ini diikuti oleh pengaliran sitoplasma ke bahagian pseudopodium yang diunjurkan. Respond to stimuli such as chemicals, touch or bright light by moving away from the Responding to stimuli stimuli. Gerak balas terhadap rangsangan Bergerak balas terhadap rangsangan seperti bahan kimia, sentuhan atau cahaya terang dengan bergerak menjauhi rangsangan ini. 20 Living processes Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp. Proses hidup Moves towards food by extending its The presence of cilia beat helps pseudopodia to trap food particles by transfer food particles into the oral phagocytosis. groove. Bergerak ke arah makanan dengan Pukulan silia membantu zarah mengunjurkan pseudopodium untuk makanan masuk ke dalam alur mulut. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 memerangkap zarah makanan secara fagositosis. The food vacuole is combined with lysosome. Nutrition Vakuol makanan bergabung dengan lisosom. Pemakanan The food particles are hydrolysed by the enzyme lysozyme in the lysosomes. Zarah makanan dihidrolisis oleh enzim lisozim dalam lisosom. The nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm. Nutrien yang dihasilkan diserap ke dalam sitoplasma. Undigested food is discharged when Undigested food is discharged through the it moves. the anus. Makanan yang tidak tercerna Makanan yang tidak tercerna disingkirkan semasa ianya bergerak. disingkirkan melalui liang dubur. food particles food lysosome food vacuole zarah makanan makanan lisosom vakuol makanan pseudopodium nutrients absorbed undigested food pseudopodium nutrien diserap makanan tidak tercerna 21 Living processes Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp. Proses hidup Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases occur through the plasma membrane by Respiration simple diffusion on the surface of the cell. Respirasi Pertukaran gas oksigen dan karbon dioksida berlaku melalui membran plasma secara resapan ringkas di seluruh permukaan sel. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Growth Grow by synthesising new cytoplasm. Pertumbuhan Membesar dengan mensintesis sitoplasma baru. Waste such as carbon dioxide and ammonia are removed by diffusion. Bahan perkumuhan seperti karbon dioksida dan ammonia disingkir secara resapan. As they live in freshwater environment, water will diffuse by osmosis and fill the contractile vacuole. Oleh kerana mereka hidup di dalam persekitaran air tawar, air akan meresap masuk ke Excretion dalam sel secara osmosis dan mengisi vakuol mengecut. Perkumuhan When the vacuole expands to the maximum size, contraction occurs and water is excreted from time to time. Vakuol mengecut akan mengembang ke saiz maksimum lalu mengecut untuk menyingkirkan air dari semasa ke semasa. This process is called osmoregulation. Proses ini dinamakan sebagai pengosmokawalaturan. 22 Living processes Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp. Proses hidup When the conditions are suitable and there is plenty of food, they will reproduce via asexual reproduction that is binary fission through mitosis. Apabila keadaan sesuai dan terdapat banyak makanan, mereka menjalankan pembiakan aseks iaitu belahan dedua secara mitosis. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 When the environmental conditions Sexual reproduction, that is are not suitable, such as dry conjugation occurs when conditions, low temperature and food environmental conditions are not Reproduction shortage, Amoeba sp. Forms spores suitable. Pembiakan that will only germinate when the Pembiakan seks iaitu konjugasi environment improves. berlaku apabila keadaan persekitaran Apabila keadaan persekitaran tidak tidak sesuai. sesuai, misalnya keadaan kering, suhu rendah dan kekurangan makanan, Amoeba sp. Membentuk spora yang hanya akan bercambah apabila keadaan persekitaran pulih semula. cytoplasm divides sitoplasma parent cell membahagi sel induk two daughter cells are formed dua anak Amoeba sp terbentuk nucleus divides nukleus membahagi 23  2.3 Living Processes In Multicellular Organisms / Proses Hidup Organisma Multisel 2.3.1 Correlate the uniqueness of specialised cell structures with their functions in multicellular organisms / Menghubung kait keunikan struktur sel khusus dengan fungsi sel dalam organisma multisel 1. There are various types of cells in multicellular organisms which are different in size, shape and arrangement. Terdapat pelbagai jenis sel dalam organisma multisel yang berbeza dari segi saiz, bentuk dan susunan. 2. The cell structure correlates to its function, and each type of cell is specialised to carry out a specific function. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Struktur sel berhubung rapat dengan fungsinya dan setiap jenis sel dikhususkan untuk menjalankan fungsi tertentu sahaja. 3. Examples of several types of specialised cells found in humans and plants as well as how these cells are adapted to carry out their respective functions: Beberapa contoh sel khusus yang terdapat dalam manusia dan tumbuhan serta bagaimana sel-sel tersebut disesuaikan untuk menjalankan fungsi masing-masing: 24  Muscle cell Sel otot 1. Arranged as multinuclear striated fibres. Tersusun dalam bentuk gentian, multinukleus dan berjalur. 2. Contract and relax to generate movement. Mengecut dan mengendur bagi menghasilkan pergerakan. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 25  Nerve cell Sel saraf 1. Long and thin in shape. Berbentuk injuran panjang dan halus. 2. Functions in sending nerve impulses. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Berfungsi menghantar impuls saraf. White blood cell Sel darah putih 1. Can change shape. Boleh berubah bentuk. 2. Functions in destroying pathogens. Berfungsi memusnahkan patogen. 26  Epithelial cell Sel epitelium 1. Thin and flat cells. Sel yang nipis dan leper. 2. Coats the surface of organs such as the digestive tract. Melapisi permukaan organ seperti salur pencernaan. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 27  Red blood cell Sel darah merah 1. Does not contain a nucleus. Tidak mempunyai nukleus. 2. Shaped as a biconcave disc. Berbentuk dwicekung. 3. Functions to optimise transportation of https://t.me/biotingkatan4 oxygen. Berfungsi untuk meningkatkan kecekapan pengangkutan oksigen. Sperm cell Sel sperma 1. Has a long tail to enable it to swim towards the ovum in the Fallopian tube. Mempunyai ekor panjang untuk membolehkannya berenang ke arah ovum di tiub Falopio. 2. The head carries a set of chromosomes from the male. Bahagian kepala mengandungi nukleus yang membawa satu set kromosom yang berasal daripada induk jantan. 28  Sieve tube element Tiub tapis 1. Long cylindrical tubes arranged from end to end. Turus silinder panjang yang tersusun dari hujung ke hujung. 2. Transports organic materials from leaves to storage organs such as fruits. Mengangkut bahan organik dari daun ke organ simpanan seperti buah. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 Xylem vessel Salur xilem 1. Long, continuous hollow tube. Berbentuk salur berongga yang panjang dan bersambungan. 2. Functions in transporting water and mineral salts from the roots to the other parts of the plant. Berfungsi mengangkut air dan garam mineral dari akar ke seluruh bahagian pokok. 29  Palisade mesophyll cell Sel mesofil palisad 1. Consists of long cylindrical cells, arranged vertically and close to each other. Terdiri daripada sel berbentuk silinder panjang, disusun secara tegak dan rapat antara satu sama lain. https://t.me/biotingkatan4 2. Contains high chlorophyll density. Mempunyai kepadatan kloroplas yang tinggi. 3. This arrangement allows maximum absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis. Susunan ini membolehkan penyerapan maksimum cahaya matahari untuk fotosintesis. Palisade mesophyll cell Sel mesofil palisad 1. Cells are loosely arranged with lots of air space in between. Sel tersusun secara longgar dengan banyak ruang udara di antaranya. 2. Large air spaces allows exchange of gas from the inside of the leaves to the palisade mesophyll cells. Ruang udara yang besar membenarkan pertukaran gas dari bahagian dalam daun ke sel 30 mesofil palisad.  Guard cell Sel pengawal 1. Modified lower epidermal cells with the thicker cell wall on the inner side. Sel epidermis yang terubahsuai dengan dinding sel yang tebal di sebelah dalam. 2. Controls the opening and closing of the stoma. Mengawal pembukaan dan penutupan stoma. a. Stoma is the opening that allows the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Stoma ialah liang yang membenarkan pertukaran gas oksigen dan karbon dioksida. 31  Root hair cell Sel akar rambut 1. Has long projection which adds surface area for the absorption of water and mineral salts. Mempunyai unjuran panjang yang menambahkan luas permukaan untuk penyerapan air dan garam mineral. 32 2.3.2 Identify specialised cells in multicellular organisms / Mengenal pasti sel khusus dalam organisma multisel Cell organisation in humans Organisasi sel dalam manusia 1. Tissues are a group of cells that have the same structure and function and are arranged together to carry out a specific function. Dalam organisma multisel, sel-sel yang sama jenis dan menjalankan fungsi yang sama diorganisasikan menjadi tisu. Tisu ialah sekumpulan sel yang mempunyai struktur dan fungsi yang sama dan disusun bersama untuk melaksanakan sesuatu fungsi yang khusus. 2. In organisms, tissues can be classified into 4 different types which are: Dalam badan organisma, tisu boleh diklasifikasikan kepada 4 jenis iaitu: a. Epithelial tissue Tisu epitelium b. Muscle tissue Tisu otot c. Nerve tissue Tisu saraf d. Connective tissue Tisu penghubung 33  Epithelial tissue Tisu epitelium 1. Epithelial tissue covers: Tisu epitelium melapisi: a. The outer surface (skin and mouth) Permukaan luar (kulit dan mulut) b. Hollow surfaces in the body (digestive tract and respiratory tract) Permukaan berongga di dalam badan (rongga salur pencernaan dan pernafasan) 2. The epithelial structure is adapted based on its function. Struktur tisu epitelium diadaptasi berdasarkan fungsinya. 3. For example: Misalnya: a. The epithelial tissue on the skin protects against infections, injuries, chemicals and dehydration. Tisu epitelium pada kulit melindungi organisma daripada jangkitan, kecederaan, bahan kimia dan penyahhidratan. b. Epithelial tissues that coat the trachea have projections like hair, known as cilia. Tisu epitelium yang melapisi trakea mempunyai unjuran seperti rambut yang dikenali sebagai silium. 34  Epithelial tissue covers the Epithelial tissue covers the surface oesophagus. Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the skin. Tisu epitelium melapisi surface of lungs. Tisu epitelium melapisi esofagus. Tisu epitelium melapisi permukaan kulit. permukaan peparu. Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the mouth. Tisu epitelium melapisi rongga mulut. 35  Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the trachea and bronchus. Tisu epitelium melapisi permukaan trakea dan bronkus. Epithelial tissue covers the surface of blood vessels. Tisu epitelium melapisi permukaan salur darah. Epithelial tissue covers the small intestine. Tisu epitelium melapisi usus kecil. Epithelial tissue lines tubules, glands and kidney ducts. Tisu epitelium melapisi tubul, kelenjar dan duktus ginjal. 36  Muscle tissue Tisu otot 1. 3 types of muscle tissues: Tiga jenis otot: a. Smooth muscle (found in the digestive tract, blood vessel, urinary tract and reproductive tract). Otot licin (terdapat di salur pencernaan, salur darah, salur kencing dan salur pembiakan) b. Skeletal muscle (found in legs and hands). Otot rangka (terdapat di kaki dan tangan) c. Cardiac muscle (found in the heart wall). Otot kardium (terdapat di dinding jantung) 37 Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle enable involuntary activities such as peristalsis along the digestive tract. Pengecutan dan pengenduran otot licin membolehkan aktiviti luar kawal seperti tindakan peristalsis di sepanjang salur pencernaan. 38 Skeletal muscle is involved in controlled movement. Otot rangka terlibat dalam pergerakan terkawal. Skeletal muscles contract and relax to generate movement in bones and limbs. Otot rangka mengecut dan mengendur untuk menghasilkan pergerakan pada tulang dan anggota badan. 39 Cardiac muscle builds walls of the heart that contract to pump blood to the whole body. Otot kardium membina dinding jantung yang mengecut untuk mengepam darah ke seluruh badan. Cardiac muscle contraction is involuntary. Pengecutan otot kardium adalah secara luar kawal. 40  Nerve tissue Tisu saraf 1. Nerve tissue is made of neuron or nerve cells. Tisu saraf terdiri daripada neuron atau sel saraf. 2. Each neuron consists of a cell body and nerve fibre called dendrite and axon. Setiap neuron terdiri daripada badan sel dan gentian saraf yang disebut dendrit dan akson. 3. Nerve tissues can detect stimuli and then send information in the form of an electrical signal (ner impulses) to the muscles or glands. Tisu saraf mengesan rangsangan seterusnya mengutus maklumat dalam bentuk isyarat elektrik (impuls saraf) ke otot atau kelenjar. 4. Nerve tissue regulates and controls body activity. Tisu saraf mengkoordinasi aktiviti badan. 41  1. Consists of various types of tissues and fibres. Connective tissue Terdiri daripada pelbagai jenis tisu dan gentian. Tisu penghubung 2. This tissue has many functions. Keep fat under the skin dermis and the surface of all Tisu ini mempunyai banyak fungsi. main organs. 3. One of its functions is to link the organs. Menyimpan lemak di bawah dermis kulit dan pada 4. Salah satunya untuk memautkan organ-organ. permukaan semua organ utama. These tissues form tendons and ligaments. adipose tissue Tisu ini membentuk tendon dan ligamen. tisu adipos The tendon connects bones and muscles while the ligaments connect bones to bones. Tendon menyambungkan tulang dan otot cartilage Encloses bone tips to prevent manakala ligamen menyambungkan tulang rawan the bone from wearing out. kepada tulang. Menutup hujung tulang untuk melindungi tulang daripada menjadi haus. fibrous connective tissue tisu penghubung bergentian Forms the body frame bone tulang and protects the internal organs. It links the epithelial tissue to the tissue below it, Membentuk rangka badan and fixes the organs in their positions. blood tissue dan melindungi organ loose connective tissue tisu darah dalaman. Berfungsi memautkan tisu epitelium kepada tisu tisu penghubung longgar di bawahnya dan menetapkan organ-organ pada kedudukannya. Plays a functional role in regulation, transportation and protection. Berfungsi dalam pengawalaturan, pengangkutan 42 dan perlindungan.  Tissue organisation in plants Organisasi tisu dalam tumbuhan  Parenchyma tissue Collenchyma tissue Sclerenchyma tissue Tisu parenkima Tisu kolenkima Tisu sklerenkima 1. Functions to store starch, protein and 1. Functions in giving support to young, 1. Functions in providing support and water. non-woody stems (herbaceous plants). mechanical strength to all mature parts of Berfungsi untuk menyimpan kanji, protein Berfungsi memberi sokongan kepada the plant. dan air. batang muda, tidak berkayu (tumbuhan Berfungsi memberi sokongan dan 2. This tissue can also carry out herba). kekuatan mekanikal kepada bahagian photosynthesis. tumbuhan yang matang. Tisu ini juga boleh menjalankan proses fotosintesis. 44  Xylem tissue Phloem tissue Tisu xilem Tisu floem 1. The xylem functions in transporting 1. The phloem functions in transporting water and mineral salts from the organic matters such as sucrose roots to other parts of the plant. from the leaves to all parts of the Xilem berfungsi mengangkut air plant. dan garam mineral dari akar ke Floem berfungsi mengangkut bahan bahagian lain tumbuhan. organik seperti sukrosa dari daun ke 2. Ligneous xylem tissue provides semua bahagian tumbuhan. support and mechanical strength to the plants. Dinding tisu xilem yang berlignin memberi sokongan dan kekuatan mekanikal kepada tumbuhan. 45  2.3.3 Analyse the density of certain organelles with the functions of specialised cells in multicellular organisms / Mencerakinkan kepadatan komponen sel tertentu dengan fungsi sel khusus dalam organisma multisel 1. Since the functions performed by cells are different, some cells have a higher density of certain cell components. Oleh sebab fungsi yang dijalankan oleh sel-sel adalah berbeza, sesetengah sel mempunyai kepadatan komponen sel tertentu yang tinggi. 2. The density of a cell component in a particular cell is related to the specific function of the cell. Kepadatan sesuatu komponen sel dalam sesuatu sel adalah berkaitan dengan fungsi spesifik sel tersebut. Types of cell Cell component found in abundance Function Jenis sel Komponen sel yang banyak Fungsi Requires a lot of energy to swim towards the uterus and Fallopian tube to fertilise the Sperm cell secondary oocytes. Sel sperma Memerlukan banyak tenaga untuk berenang ke arah uterus dan tiub Falopio untuk Mitochondrion mensenyawakan oosit sekunder. Mitokondrion Requires a lot of energy to contract and relax Muscle cell such as flight muscle cells in to enable movement and flight. insects and birds Memerlukan banyak tenaga untuk pengecutan Sel otot, misalnya sel otot penerbangan dan pengenduran bagi membolehkan serangga dan burung pergerakan dan penerbangan. 46  Types of cell Cell component found in abundance Function Jenis sel Komponen sel yang banyak Fungsi Requires a lot of energy to carry out active cell division process to produce new cells. Plant meristem cell Mitochondrion Memerlukan banyak tenaga bagi menjalankan Sel meristem tumbuhan Mitokondrion proses pembahagian sel secara aktif untuk menghasilkan sel baharu. Palisade mesophyll cell Absorbs more sunlight to carry out the Sel mesofil palisad Chloroplast process of photosynthesis. Kloroplas Menyerap lebih cahaya matahari untuk Spongy mesophyll cell menjalankan proses fotosintesis. Sel mesofil berspan Increases synthesis and secretion of digestive Pancreatic cell enzymes. Sel pankreas Rough endoplasmic reticulum Meningkatkan sintesis dan perembesan enzim Jalinan endoplasma kasar pencernaan. Goblet cell in intestinal epithelium and Golgi apparatus respiratory tract Jasad Golgi Produce mucus. Sel goblet pada epitelium usus dan salur Menghasilkan mukus. pernafasan 47 Types of cell Cell component found in abundance Function Jenis sel Komponen sel yang banyak Fungsi Rough endoplasmic reticulum Metabolises carbohydrates. Jalinan endoplasma kasar Metabolisme karbohidrat. Liver cell Detoxification of drugs and poisons. Sel hati Golgi apparatus Detoksifikasi dadah dan racun. Jasad Golgi 48 2.3.4 Describe the effects of deficiency, absence or failure in the function of an organelle of certain cells in multicellular organisms / Menghuraikan kesan kekurangan, ketiadaan atau kegagalan fungsi suatu komponen sel bagi sel tertentu dalam organisma multisel Impact of deficiency, absence or failure of a particular organelle for a particular cells, such as … Kesan kekurangan, ketiadaan atau kegagalan fungsi suatu organel bagi sel tertentu seperti … Lysosome Chloroplast Lisosom Kloroplas No intracellular digestion of food, worn out 1. Plant cells cannot absorb light organelles, old or damaged cells as well as energy and photosynthsis cannot microorganisms. take place. Tiada penghadaman intrasellular terhadap Sel-sel tumbuhan tidak dapat makanan, organel yang sudah tua dan menyerap tenaga cahaya dan rosak serta sel mikroorganisma. fotosintesis tidak berlaku. 2. Organic substances are not produced and oxygen are not released into the atmosphere. Bahan organik tidak dapat disintesis dan oksigen tidak dibebaskan. 49  Impact of deficiency, absence or failure of a particular organelle for a particular cells, such as … Kesan kekurangan, ketiadaan atau kegagalan fungsi suatu organel bagi sel tertentu seperti … Mitochondrion Ribosom Mitokondrion Ribosome No aerobic respiration, maka tenaga tidak 1. No protein synthesis, growth is dijana untuk semua aktiviti dalam sel. inhibited. Tiada respirasi aerobik, maka tenaga tidak Tiada sintesis protein, maka dijana untuk semua aktiviti dalam sel. pertumbuhan terbantut. 2. Enzymes, antibodies and some hormones cannot be produced. Enzim, antibodi dan beberapa hormon tidak dapat dihasilkan. 3. Damaged cells or tissues cannot be repaired, cell structure cannot be maintained and cell division cannot occur. Sel atau tisu yang rosak tidak dapat dibaiki, struktur sel tidak dapat dikekalkan dan pembahagian sel tidak dapat berlaku. 50  Impact of deficiency, absence or failure of a particular organelle for a particular cells, such as … Kesan kekurangan, ketiadaan atau kegagalan fungsi suatu organel bagi sel tertentu seperti … Tay-Sachs disease (TSD) Penyakit Tay-Sachs (TSD) 1. Caused by a defect or failure of the lysosome function. Disebabkan oleh kecacatan atau kegagalan fungsi lisosom. 2. It is a genetic disease that can be transmitted from parent to child. Merupakan penyakit genetik yang boleh dipindahkan daripada ibu bapa kepada anak. 3. It is caused by the absence of an enzyme (beta-hexosaminidase A) that helps break down fatty substances, known as GM2 gangliosides. This enzyme is found in the lysosome. Disebabkan ketiadaan enzim (beta-hexosaminidase A) yang membantu memecahkan zat-zat lemak, yang dikenali sebagai GM2 gangliosides. Enzim ini dijumpai dalam lisososm. 4. The levels of GM2 gangliosides increase and reach toxic levels in the brain of children and affect the functioning of nerve cells. Tahap GM2 gangliosides semakin bertambah dan mencapai tahap toksik di dalam otak kanak-kanak dan menjejaskan fungsi sel-sel saraf. 5. Mutations in the HEXA gene disrupt beta-hexosaminidase A activity, which prevents the enzyme from damaging GM2 ganglioside. Mutasi dalam gen HEXA mengganggu aktiviti beta-hexosaminidase A, yang menghalang enzim daripada merosakkan ganglioside GM2. 51 6. Symptoms and signs of Tay-Sachs disease: Gejala dan tanda-tanda penyakit Tay-Sachs: a. Loss of motor skills, including crawling and sitting Kehilangan kemahiran motor, termasuk merangkak dan duduk b. Reactions are exaggerated when the baby hears loud noises Reaksi dibesar-besarkan apabila bayi mendengar bunyi yang kuat c. Seizures Kekejangan d. Vision and hearing loss Kehilangan penglihatan dan pendengaran e. "Cherry-red" spots on the eyes Bintik “Cherry-red” di mata f. Muscle weakness Kelemahan otot g. Movement problems Masalah pergerakan 52  Impact of deficiency, absence or failure of a particular organelle for a particular cells, such as … Kesan kekurangan, ketiadaan atau kegagalan fungsi suatu organel bagi sel tertentu seperti … Mitochondrial dysfunction Disfungsi mitokondria 1. Due to defect or failure of mitochondrial function. Disebabkan oleh kecacatan atau kegagalan fungsi mitokondria. 2. Caused by gene mutations. Disebabkan oleh mutasi gen. 3. This gene fails to produce the kind of protein needed by the mitochondria to generate energy. Gen ini gagal menghasilkan sejenis protein yang diperlukan oleh mitokondria untuk menjana tenaga. 4. Symptoms and signs of mitochondrial dysfunction: Gejala dan tanda disfungsi mitokondria: 53 a. Affected babies usually have severe brain dysfunction (encephalopathy), which can contribute to weak muscle (hypotonia), seizures, and delayed mental and movement development (psychomotor delay). Bayi yang terjejas biasanya mempunyai disfungsi otak yang teruk (encephalopathy), yang boleh menyumbang kepada otot yang lemah (hipotonia), sawan, dan perkembangan mental dan pergerakan kelewatan (kelewatan psikomotor). b. These babies often experience increasing difficulty and are unable to gain normal weight. Bayi ini sering mengalami kesukaran yang semakin meningkat dan gagal mendapat berat badan yang normal. c. Most affected babies have a chemical accumulation called lactic acid in the body (lactic acidosis), which can be life-threatening. Bayi yang paling terjejas mempunyai pembentukan bahan kimia yang dipanggil asid laktik dalam badan (asidosis laktik), yang boleh mengancam nyawa. d. They may also have high levels of molecules called glycerin (hyperglycinemia) or high sugar levels (hyperglycemia) in the blood. Mereka mungkin juga mempunyai tahap molekul yang tinggi yang dipanggil gliserin (hyperglycinemia) atau paras gula tinggi (hyperglycemia) dalam darah. e. Some babies with mitochondrial dysfunction syndrome have high blood pressure in the bloodstream that connects to the lungs (pulmonary hypertension) or weakens the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy). Sesetengah bayi dengan sindrom disfungsi mitokondria mempunyai tekanan darah tinggi di dalam saluran darah yang menyambung ke paru-paru (hipertensi pulmonari) atau melemahkan otot jantung (kardiomiopati). 54  2.4 Levels Of Organisation In Multicellular Organisms / Aras Organisasi 2.4.1 Make a sequence of level of organisation in multicellular organisms / Membuat urutan aras organisasi dalam organisma multisel Cell Tissue Organ System Multicellular organism Basic unit of Is a group of Consists of Consists of a Combination life. similar cells different group of of all and are tissues several systems that Unit asas specialised to grouped different work together kehidupan carry out a together and organs that for the common coordinated work together survival of function. to carry out to perform a the organism. one or more specific Sekumpulan particular bodily Gabungan sel yang functions. function. semua mempunyai Beberapa sistem organ. struktur yang Sekumpulan organ yang serupa serta tisu berlainan berlainan tersusun bergabung bekerja bersama-sam bersama secara a untuk untuk bersepadu melaksanaka menjalankan untuk n fungsi fungsi yang melakukan khusus. khusus. sesuatu fungsi 55 khusus.  epithelial tissue Fills up space in the heart. tisu epitelium Melapisi ruang di dalam jantung. cardiac muscle tissue Pumping blood to the rest of the body. tisu otot kardium Mengepam darah ke seluruh badan. composed of terbina daripada Such as the blood, connect the systems in the organ. connective tissue Contohnya darah, menghubungkan antara tisu penghubung sistem-sistem organ. nerve tissue Regulates the rhythm of the heartbeat. tisu saraf Mengawal atur ritma denyutan jantung. 56  2.4.2 identify cells, tissues or organs in an organ system / Mengenal pasti sel, tisu atau organ dalam suatu sistem organ 2.4.3 Communicate about organ systems in multicellular organisms with their main functions / Berkomunikasi tentang sistem organ dengan fungsi utamanya dalam organisma multisel Endocrine system Respiratory system Sistem endokrin Sistem respirasi The endocrine gland that secretes hormones. Trachea, nose, lungs and diaphragm. Kelenjar endokrin yang merembeskan hormon. Trakea, hidung, peparu dan diafragma. Main function: Main function: Fungsi utama: Fungsi utama: Coordinates body activities with the nervous system. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the body Mengkoordinasi aktiviti badan bersama-sama dengan sistem saraf. and external environment. Pertukaran gas oksigen dan gas karbon dioksida antara badan dengan persekitaran luar. Muscular system Integumentary system Sistem otot Sistem integumen Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles. Skin. Otot rangka, otot licin dan otot kardium. Kulit. Main function: Main function: Fungsi utama: Fungsi utama: Contracts and relaxes to produce movements in different parts of the Protects the body from physical injury, infection and dehydration. body. Melindungi badan daripada kecederaan fizikal, jangkitan dan Mengecut dan mengendur untuk menghasilkan pergerakan bahagian 57 penyahhidratan. badan yang berlainan.  Male reproductive system system Female reproductive system system Sistem pembiakan lelaki Sistem pembiakan perempuan Testes, prostate gland and penis. Ovary, uterus, Fallopian tube, vagina and cervix. Testis, kelenjar prostat dan zakar. Ovari, uterus, tiub Falopio, faraj dan serviks. Main function: Main function: Fungsi utama: Fungsi utama: Produces sperm and male sex hormone. Produces ovum and female sex hormones. Menghasilkan sperma dan hormon seks lelaki. Menghasilkan ovum dan hormon seks perempuan. Lymphatic system Nervous system Sistem limfa Sistem saraf Spleen, lymph nodes and lymph vessels. Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. Limpa, nodus limfa dan salur limfa. Otak, saraf tunjang dan saraf periferi. Main function: Main function: Fungsi utama: Fungsi utama: Maintains balance of bodily fluids and prevents infectious diseases. Detects and sends information in the body, as well as coordinates Mengekalkan keseimbangan bendalir badan dan mencegah jangkitan body activities. penyakit. Mengesan dan menghantar maklumat dalam badan serta mengkoordinasi aktiviti badan. 58  Blood circulatory system system Digestive system Sistem peredaran darah Sistem pencernaan Heart, artery, vein and blood capillary. Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine and Jantung, arteri, vena dan kapilari darah. large intestine. Main function: Mulut, esofagus, perut, hati, pankreas, usus kecil dan usus besar. Fungsi utama: Main function: Transports nutrients, respiratory gases and waste products. Fungsi utama: Mengangkut nutrien, gas respirasi dan hasil perkumuhan. Digests food into a simpler form for easy absorption. Mencernakan bahan makanan kepada bentuk ringkas yang mudah diserap. Urinary system Skeletal system Sistem urinari Sistem rangka Kidney, ureter, urethra and bladder. Bone, cartilage, ligament and tendon. Ginjal, ureter, uretra dan pundi kencing. Tulang, rawan, ligamen dan tendon. Main function: Main function: Fungsi utama: Fungsi utama: Eliminates waste products such as urea and uric acid from the body. Supports the body, protects the internal organs and provides a base Menyingkirkan hasil perkumuhan seperti urea dan asid urik daripada for muscle adhesion. badan. Menyokong badan dan melindungi organ dalaman serta menjadi asas pautan otot. 59  Stems and twigs are support systems that support the leaves at a vertical position to allow maximum absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis. Batang dan ranting menyokong daun pada kedudukan menegak supaya daun dapat menyerap cahaya matahari yang maksimum semasa fotosintesis. shoot pucuk leaf daun stem and twigs shoot system organs batang dan ranting sistem pucuk organ fruit buah Flowers are involved in the pollination flower process. bunga Bunga terlibat dalam proses pembiakan tumbuhan. Roots function in absorbing water and mineral salts as well as providing support for plants. root system organs root Akar berfungsi menyerap air dan sistem akar organ akar garam mineral serta memberi sokongan kepada tumbuhan. 60  Extra notes Nota tambahan 61  Extra notes Nota tambahan 62