Learning & Instruction Lecture 31 PDF

Lecture : 31 EL & Instruction PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty IIT, Kharagpur  Learning & Instruction- EL PT N  What do people think about learning ? Learning as a quantitative increase in...

Lecture : 31 EL & Instruction PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty IIT, Kharagpur  Learning & Instruction- EL PT N  What do people think about learning ? Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information or ‘knowing a lot’. Learning as memorizing; Learning is storing information that can be reproduced. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods that can be retained and used as necessary. EL Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to the real world. PT Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge. Learning as a product- N Robert Gagne defined learning as ‘a change in human disposition or capacity that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth (1982).  Benjamin S. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge). Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self). Psychomotor: manual or physical skills. EL Learning as a process- David Kolb’s exploration of experiential learning: PT concrete experience, observation and reflection, N the formation of abstract concepts, and testing in new situations.  John Dewey’s Reflection, learning and education: Returning to experience – that is to say recalling or detailing salient events. Attending to (or connecting with) feelings – this has two aspects: using helpful feelings and removing obstructive ones. EL Evaluating experience – this involves re-examining experience in the light of one’s intent and existing knowledge etc. PT It also involves integrating this new knowledge into one’s conceptual framework. N  Schools of Learning Theories- The behaviorist orientation to learning The cognitive orientation to learning The humanistic orientation to learning The social/situational orientation to learning The constructivist/social constructivist orientation to learning. EL The Behaviorist orientation to learning-key assumptions Observable behavior rather than internal thought processes are the focus of study. PT In particular, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. The environment shapes one’s behavior; what one learns is determined by the elements in the environment, not by the individual learner. N The principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process.  The Cognitive orientation to learning- Principles Instruction should be well-organized; Well-organized materials are easier to learn and to remember. Instruction should be clearly structured; Subject matters are said to have inherent structures – logical relationships between key ideas and concepts – which link the parts together. The perceptual features of the task are important; Learners attend EL selectively to different aspects of the environment; Thus, the way a problem is displayed is important if learners are to understand it. PT Prior knowledge is important; Things must fit with what is already known if it is to be learnt. Differences between individuals are important as they will affect learning;’ or methods of approach influence learning, Differences in ‘cognitive style N Cognitive feedback gives information to learners about their success or failure concerning the task at hand; Reinforcement can come through giving information – a ‘knowledge of results’ – rather than simply a reward.  Humanistic orientations to learning-Significant learning elements (Carl Rogers,1983) It has a quality of personal involvement—the whole person in both feeling and cognitive aspects being in the learning event. It is self-initiated; Even when the impetus or stimulus comes from the outside, the sense of discovers of reaching out, of grasping and comprehending, comes from within. EL It is pervasive; It makes a difference in the behavior, the attitudes, perhaps even the personality of the learner. It is evaluated by the learner; PT She knows whether it is meeting her need, whether it leads toward what she wants to know, whether it illuminates the dark area of ignorance she is experiencing. learner. N The locus of evaluation, we might say, resides definitely in the Its essence is meaning; When such learning takes place, the element of meaning to the learner is built into the whole experience.  Lecture : 32 EL & Instruction PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty IIT, Kharagpur  The Social/Situational orientation to learning- Attending to a behavior; remembering it as a possible model or paradigm; and playing out how it may work for them in different situations (rehearsal) are key aspects of observational learning(Bandura,1977). Situated learning –Lave and Wenger (1991); Learning is not just the acquisition of certain forms of knowledge, but includes social relationships – situations of co-participation depends on two claims: EL It makes no sense to talk of knowledge that is decontextualized, abstract or general. New knowledge and learning are properly conceived as being located in PT communities of practice; Learning is in the relationships between people; Educators work so that people can become participants in communities may participate to the full. N of practice – they need to explore with people in communities how all There is an intimate connection between knowledge and activity – Learning is part of daily living such as Problem solving and learning from experiences.  The Constructivist / Social constructivist orientation to learning- Learning as a mental activity– knowledge is created; Active learning Social, meaning created by each learner (personal)” Learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions” EL “Human beings construct knowledge by giving meaning to current experiences in light of prior knowledge, mental structures, experiences, and beliefs. PT It is based on the assumption that the source of a person’s understanding of external phenomena is in the person’s mind. Mind is viewed as an active participant in helping people make sense of reality” N “Children’s abilities should be assessed under a variety of work conditions; Engagement, participation, social, cultural. Constructivist teaching involves students in collaborative groups, such as cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching, and long-term projects. N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL  Learning Styles- Types- Visual learning style Auditory learning style Kinesthetic learning style Reading/Writing Logical/analytical learners EL Social/linguistic learners Solitary learners PT Nature learners Visual learning style-Visual learners are individuals who prefer to N take in their information visually—be that with maps, graphs, diagrams, charts, and different visual aids such as patterns and shapes. The best way to present to visual learners is by showing them the relationship between different ideas visually through Flow Chart.  Auditory learning style – This type of individuals learn better when they take in information in auditory form when it is heard or spoken. They are prone to sorting their ideas after speaking, rather than thinking ideas through before. Thus, saying things out loud helps them understand the concept. Auditory learners learn best when information is presented to EL them via strategies that involve talking, such as lectures and group discussions. They can benefit from repeating back the lessons, having PT recordings of the lectures, group activities that require classmates explaining ideas, etc. Kinesthetic learning style- Kinesthetic learners are individuals who prefer to learn by doing. N They enjoy a hands-on experience. They are usually more in touch with reality and more connected to it, which is why they require using tactile experience to understand something better.  Reading/Writing-This type of learners consume information best when it’s in words, whether that’s by writing it down or reading it. To them, text is more powerful than any kind of visual or auditory representation of an idea. These individuals usually perform very well on written assignments; It would be best to have them describe charts and diagrams by EL written statements, take written quizzes on the topics, or give them written assignments. Logical/analytical learners- This type of learners depend on logic PT and analytical skills to understand a particular subject. They search for connections, causes, patterns, and results in their learning. N A teacher can engage and motivate analytical learners by posing questions that require interpretation, using material that activates problem-solving skills and stimulating students to reach conclusions based on facts or reasoning.  Social/linguistic learners-These types of learners favor educational lessons that include peer work or participation. Social/ linguistic learners get two things out of this participation: socializing (which they love) and a better understanding of a subject. Teachers can motivate these types of learners by using role-playing, EL group activities, and encouraging student interaction (asking questions, sharing stories, etc.). Solitary learners-Otherwise known as solo learners, these students PT are the opposite of social learners. Solitary learners prefer to study alone without having to interact with other learners. N Individual work is a solo student’s forte. Teachers can help these types of learners by using activities that require individual work (including keeping a diary) and problem- solving skills, recognizing a student’s individual accomplishments, etc.  Nature learners-These types of learners excel when in contact with nature. A nature learner’s ideal study environment is a calm and relaxing environment. If we had to compare nature learners with another type, it would be tactile learners. EL The only difference is the nature part of this deal, as nature learners need to be outside to learn better. PT While learning in nature may not always be possible, teachers can still nurture this learning style in students by assigning hands-on activities, having classes outdoors N when possible, and using nature examples when explaining a new lesson.  Lecture : 33 EL & Instruction PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty IIT, Kharagpur  Instruction refers to those curriculum-related, professionally-informed decisions that teachers purposefully enact to enhance learning opportunities for students. Effective instruction(EI) is interactive and designed to accommodate student learning needs and styles through a variety of teaching practices. EI is guided by general pedagogical approaches and specific instructional practices. EL Effective instruction is eclectic. EI is tied directly to the success of the learning experience. PT EI is empowered professional practice in action. EI integrates the components of the Core Curriculum. EI is generative and dynamic. N EI recognizes there is an art as well as a science to teaching. EI acknowledges a comprehensive understanding of the instructional cycle. EI finds best expression when educators collaborate to develop, implement, and refine their professional practices. N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL  Different types of instruction: Direct instruction: teacher-centered, with little to no input from students. The teacher gives instruction, demonstrations, and explanations. Indirect instruction: student-centered, with more input from students. The teacher guides students to discover concepts, principles, and skills. EL Interactive instruction: group-centered, with more interaction among students and teacher. The teacher facilitates PT discussions, debates, role-plays, and cooperative learning. Independent instruction: individual-centered, with more autonomy for students. The teacher assigns projects, research, self-study, and homework. N Experimental instruction: inquiry-centered, with more hands- on learning for students. The teacher engages students in experiments, simulations, problem-solving, and investigations.  Principles of Instruction- (Merrill (2002) 1. Task Related or Problem Centered: Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real- world problems. 2. Activation: Learning is promoted when existing EL knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge. PT 3. Demonstration: Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner. 4. Application: Learning is promoted when new N knowledge is applied by the learner. 5. Integration: Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world.  Instructional System Design: ADDIE Model Instructional Systems Design/ISD is used for assessing and developing courses and solutions needed for formal training. The operative word here is “systematic,” as ISD is based on a framework and systems approach to designing courses for training delivery. Applying ISD in designing and developing a course keeps Instructional Designers (IDs) on track for a learners-based rather than teacher- based approach to training. EL This systematic approach ensures an effective learning process grounded on learning objectives. The most popular ISD is the ADDIE model, which stands for Analysis, PT Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. ADDIE is a step-by-step framework used by instructional designers, training developers, and learning and development specialists to N create educational or training programs. ADDIE is an instructional design model that aims to organize content, streamline development, and ensure a structured framework for every course.  Principles of Instructional Systems Design- It should move at an efficient pace. An instructional program should be able to teach a subject matter efficiently, given that participants normally require several hours of learning. It should encourage its learners to cover the learning activities whenever they can, enabling them to apply the subject matter in EL practical situations quickly. To do this- Instructor should- 1) Look into the students’ background and learning capabilities. PT 2) Add in supplementary resources and extra (remedial) materials to allow students to absorb the lessons faster. 3) Use a clear, straightforward, and organized format while giving N structure to the build-up of knowledge, such as referring back to previous lessons and explaining how the current subject links to the next one. 4) Break down the lessons into smaller chunks instead of giving a significant amount of information in one go.  It should put information into context. Enable the learners to understand the subject more deeply by linking new information and theories to their existing knowledge. Provide context as to how they can apply it in real life. Use several examples and mix up the formats, i.e. written and practical. It should be community-based. EL Even when the training program is remote, learning should take place within a community of learners. Provide avenues for peer feedback and student-to-student PT interactions. Enable teamwork by providing learning activities that require them to collaborate with others. N It provides opportunities for learners to create original output. Learning does not just involve cognitive functions such as remembering and memorizing. Learning improves when students are able to produce output that applies what they have learned  For example, writing reaction papers or delivering oral presentations help students digest information in a more in-depth manner. Critical-thinking and problem-solving exercises help learners understand how theories can be applied in practical situations. Working outside of the class, like on-the-job training, will help them see various viewpoints and appreciate how the course becomes significant in day-to-day work. EL It creates and uses evaluation tools implemented at the learner’s pace. Ensure that learners have a full grasp of the lessons before PT conducting an evaluation. Provide ample time for learning, versus cramming a heavy amount of information and then administering tests at the end of the module. N Space out the delivery of materials and provide informal evaluations and feedback in small chunks. Make sure tests are relevant and effective by evaluating testing instruments to see if they actually work.  Lecture : 34 EL & Instruction PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty IIT, Kharagpur  ADDIE is a popular model for instructional design, providing a framework to produce effective learning and development programs. “ADDIE” itself is an acronym for the five stages of the model: Analyze Design Development EL Implementation Evaluation PT These five clearly defined processes help ensure training programs and their resources have the required elements to succeed. ADDIE methodologies offer a systems-based, iterative learning and review to improve. N development design strategy while incorporating feedback and There are also other models to apply a systematic process to content development, planning, and developing their corporate training. N PT EL  In the ADDIE model, each step has an outcome that feeds into the subsequent step. Analysis > Design > Development > Implementation > Evaluation Analysis Phase In the analysis phase, instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established and the learning environment and learner’s existing knowledge and EL skills are identified. The following questions are addressed during the analysis phase: PT * Who is the audience and their characteristics? * Identify the new behavioral outcome? N * What types of learning constraints exist? * What are the delivery options? * What are the online pedagogical considerations? * What is the timeline for project completion?  Design Phase The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining the project’s goals. EL Specific means each element of the instructional design plan needs to be executed with attention to details. These are steps used for the design phase: PT * Documentation of the project’s instructional, visual and technical design strategy * Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, psychomotor). * Create storyboards N * Design the user interface and user experience * Prototype creation * Apply visual design (graphic design)  Development Phase The development phase is where the developers create and assemble the content assets that were created in the design phase. Programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback EL given. Implementation Phase During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the PT facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators’ training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. N Preparation of the learners include training them on new tools (software or hardware), student registration. This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application or Web site is functional.  Evaluation Phase The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users. EL What is Instructional Framework ? The Instructional Framework, identifies and illustrates the PT interrelationship among instructional approaches that, properly used, are acknowledged to be consistent with sound educational practice. The approaches are referenced to the goals of education N and apply to the objectives of the various curricula. The Instructional model refers to a broad approach, to methods, strategies and instructional skill, that represents a specific teaching behavior to achieve expected learning outcomes. N PT EL  Instructional Models- This represent the broadest level of instructional practices and present a philosophical orientation to instruction. Models are used to select and to structure teaching strategies, methods, skills, and student activities for a particular instructional emphasis. Joyce and Weil (1986) identify four models: information processing , behavioral, social interaction, and personal. EL Instructional Strategies Within each model several strategies can be used. Strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve PT learning objectives. Strategies can be classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or independent. Instructional Methods N Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a variety of strategies. N PT EL  Instructional Models : Joyce and Weil (1986) present four broad models for instruction, Information Processing This model emphasizes the acquisition, mastery, and processing of information. The cognitive functioning of the student is the focus. Personal EL The emphasis in this model is on the development of the individual's self concept. This involves development of the processes an individual uses to build PT and organize his or her unique self. The focus on a strong, realistic self concept helps to build productive relationships with others and the environment. Social Interaction N This model emphasizes the personal and societal relationships among people. The focus is on improving the student's ability to relate to others, to engage in democratic processes, and to work productively in society.  Behavioral The behavioral model emphasizes changing the visible behavior of the learner to be consistent with his or her own self concept. As a result of its basis in the stimulus control/reinforcement theories, the behavioral model of instruction stresses that learning tasks should be broken into a series of small, sequenced tasks and behaviors. EL A unit of instruction might draw from several of the models, while a single lesson might incorporate aspects of more than PT one model. Instructional Strategies Decision making regarding instructional strategies requires N teachers to focus on curriculum, the prior experiences and knowledge of students, learner interests, student learning styles, and the developmental levels of the learner. Such decision making relies on ongoing student assessment that is linked to learning objectives and processes.  Expository Method of Teaching (David Ausubel)- David Ausubel, an American psychologist, developed the learning theory known as meaningful learning in the 1960s. According to this theory, meaningful learning occurs when new information is integrated into existing knowledge structures, also known as mental schemas. Ausubel believed that prior knowledge is the most critical aspect of EL meaningful learning. He posited that new information is learned best when it is linked to relevant existing knowledge. PT He believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. N He developed the theory of meaningful learning and advance organizers for effective teaching-learning process. Knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known. N PT EL  Advance Organizers Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a mechanism to help to link new learning material with existing related ideas. Advance organizers are helpful in the way that they help the process of learning when difficult and complex material are introduced. This is satisfied through two conditions: 1. The student must process and understand the information presented in EL the organizer-- this increases the effectiveness of the organizer itself. 2. The organizer must indicate the relations among the basic concepts and PT terms that will be used. Advance organizers fall into two categories: comparative and expository. Comparative Organizers N The main goal of comparative organizers is to activate existing schemas and is used as reminders to bring into the working memory of what you may not realize is relevant. A comparative Organizer is also used both to integrate as well as discriminate.  Expository organizers Provide new knowledge that students will need to understand the upcoming information. Expository organizers are often used when the new learning material is unfamiliar to the learner. They often relate what the learner already knows with the new EL and unfamiliar material—this in turn is aimed to make the unfamiliar material more plausible to the learner. PT N  Ausubel’s Ideas- According to the expository method of teaching, the learner is an active agent who engages with and interprets information and incorporates it into existing cognitive schemata. The role of the teacher is not just to present new information but to do so in a meaningful way – taking account of the learner’s prior experience. New knowledge should always be subsumed under (related to, integrated EL with) previously familiar concepts, a hierarchical way of organizing knowledge in mind, (general ideas followed by more complex ones, general ideas form advance organizer, which is a general/subsuming framework for understanding new concepts). PT A primary process in learning is subsumption (in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis). Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; N (learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information). Thus, it’s known both as expository & subsuming teaching method.  Lecture : 35 EL & Instruction PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty IIT, Kharagpur  Robert Gagné’s Theory of Learning & Instruction- Robert Gagné is one of the behaviorist theorists; he took the best of both worlds, behaviorism and cognitivism, to create his view of instruction and its design. He believes that learning results in behavior changes that are Observable; called these changes in behavior outcomes. Outcomes are descriptions of educational goals in terms of what is to be accomplished through the prescribed learning activities. EL Gagné also maintains a cognitive perspective in which learning was recognized as a result of an individual's cognitive efforts to construct his or her personal knowledge. He focuses on memory and how to plan curriculum in chunks so as PT not to overload memory. His instructional design models reflect this emphasis on thinking and remembering. Taxonomy of learning out comes N His theory divided into three elements- Conditions necessary to achieve the learning outcomes & Nine events of instruction designed to guide the teacher through the process of designing for learning  He identified five categories of learning; each require a different type of instruction in order for learning to occur verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies , motor skills and attitudes (Taxonomy of Human learning capabilities ) His theory directed instruction that combine the behavioral and information processing learning theories; He believes that the results of learning are measurable through testing and that drill, practice, immediate feedback or EL effective. Each learning outcome must have- pre-requisite knowledge or skills must be identified; PT Instructor uses the conditions of learning for the particular learning outcomes to determine the conditions necessary for learning. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. N The teacher must accomplish at least three tasks- 1. Assure pre-requisite skills 2. Supply instructional conditions 3. Determine the type of learning N PT EL  GAGNE's LEARNING MODEL- EL PT N  Instruction Theory of Jerome Bruner: The Guided Discovery Learning Bruner sees the learner as an active agent; emphasizing the importance of existing schemata in guiding learning. Bruner argues that students should discern for themselves the structure of subject content – discovering the links and relationships between different facts, concepts and theories. EL Bruner (1966) hypothesized that the usual course of intellectual development moves through three stages: enactive, iconic, and symbolic, in that order. The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners PT (i.e., learning to learn). Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and “culturally invented technologies that serve as N amplifiers of these capabilities.” The culturally invented technologies include not just computers and television, but more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes phenomena, and language itself.  Language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual’s response. Modes of representation are how information or knowledge is stored and encoded in memory. Knowledge is represented and organized through different modes of thinking (or representation). He proposed three modes of representation: EL Enactive representation (action-based) Iconic representation (image-based) PT Symbolic representation (language-based) He suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to for adult learners. N iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even According to his theory a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately.  In the Enactive mode,(0 -1 year) – Knowledge is stored primarily in the form of motor responses. This mode is used within the first year of life; thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking). It involves encoding physical action-based information and storing it in our memory. EL Iconic Mode (1-6 years)- Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. PT Also when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information. as hearing, smell or touch. N Thinking is also based on using other mental images (icons), such Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards)- In this symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as language, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.  Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc. so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images, According to Bruner’s taxonomy, these differ from icons in that symbols are arbitrary. Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. EL He argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition. PT The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent. Education should aim to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn). N Bruner’s concept of Discovery Learning – arguing that students should “not be presented with the subject matter in its final form, but rather are required to organize it themselves…….to discover for themselves relationships that exist among items of information”.  The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. A good teacher should design lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits of information. This requires the teacher to be actively involved in lessons; providing cognitive scaffolding which will facilitate learning on the part of the student. EL Scaffolding refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of PT acquiring (Bruner, 1978). Bruner states that the level of intellectual development determines the extent to which the child has been given N appropriate instruction together with practice or experience. He views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development, and since language is the primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining cognitive development.  For Jean Piaget learning is cyclical. Piaget's learning cycle includes an exploration, concept introduction and concept application phase; Humans learn by constructing their own knowledge. The primary role of teacher should be to motivate the children to create their own knowledge through their personal experiences. Teachers are merely facilitators who support learners in the EL learning process. Learners should take control in making decisions in line with their needs and cognitive state. PT Piaget advocated non intervention saying that everything one teaches a child prevents him from inventing or discovering. Children develop knowledge through active participation in their learning ; N Learners will build their own knowledge through experience. This experience will help them build mental models which they will further develop through assimilation and accommodation. N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL  References https://dl.icdst.org/pdfs/files1/7e9bd5801e72bf80a66e4b3fd0b06c50.pdf https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/ausubels-learning-theory/ https://learn.akkadium.com/gagne-and-instructional-design/ EL https://open.byu.edu/id/robert_gagn_and_systematic_design https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist/ PT N N PT EL