Learning Theories And Program Design PDF

LEARNING: THEORIES AND PROGRAM DESIGN What is Learning? What is learned? Learning is relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes. Learning outcomes refer to what is to be learned. It should b...

LEARNING: THEORIES AND PROGRAM DESIGN What is Learning? What is learned? Learning is relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes. Learning outcomes refer to what is to be learned. It should be related to what is required to successfully perform the job. Understanding learning outcomes is crucial because they influence the characteristics of the training environment that are necessary for learning to occur. The design of the learning program is also important for learning to occur. This includes the program schedule, providing a physically comfortable environment and arranging the seating in the training environment to facilitate interaction among trainees and between trainees and trainer. Verbal information includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge. For example, a manager must know the different types of equipment as well as the body of knowledge related to TQM Intellectual skills include concepts and rules. For example, a manager must know the steps in the performance process in order to conduct an employee appraisal. Motor skills include coordination and dexterity necessary to climb ladder and telephone poles. Attitudes are combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave a certain way. They include a cognitive component (beliefs), an affective component (feeling), and an intentional component (the way the person intends to behave in regard to the subject of the attitude). Important work-related attitudes include job satisfaction, commitment to the organization and job involvement. Cognitive strategies regulate the processes of learning. They relate to the learner's decision regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems. Conditions for learning to occur 1. providing opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback. 2. offering meaningful training content. 3. identifying any prerequisites that trainees need to successfully complete the program. 4. allowing the trainees to learn through observation and experience Learning Theories Reinforcement Theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behavior because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors. There are processes involved: a. Positive reinforcement is a pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior. b. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant outcome. c. Extinction is the process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers d. Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behavior leading to a decrease in that behavior. Learning Theories Behavior Modification is a training method that is primarily based on reinforcement theory. For example, a training program on eliminating unsafe behaviors such as climbing over conveyor belts rather than walking around them and sticking hands into equipment to dislodge jammed materials without turning off the equipment. Social Learning Theory (SLT) SLT emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Accordingly, learning new skills or behaviors come from directly experiencing the consequences of using that behavior or skills, and the process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Processes under SLT: 1. Attention suggests that persons cannot learn by observation unless they are aware of the important aspects of the model's performance. 2. Retention is the coding and organizing what has been observed. 3. Motor reproduction involves trying out the observed behaviors to see if they result in the same reinforcement that the model received. 4. Motivational processes refer to reinforcements which will make them more likely to adopt a modeled behavior. Goal Setting Theory assumed that behavior results from a person's conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence a person's behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining efforts over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Goal orientation refers to goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include a learning orientation (LO) or a performance orientation (PO). LO relates to trying to increase ability or competence. People with a LO believe that training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress. PO refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others. People with a PO define success as high performance relative to others, value high ability more than learning, and find errors and mistakes cause anxiety and want to avoid them. Need Theories help to explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes. A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at any point in time. A need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the deficiency. Abraham Maslow and Clayton Alderfer believed that persons start by trying to satisfy needs at the lowest level, then progress up the hierarchy as lower-level needs are satisfied Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety and Security Physiological/Biological Clayton Alderfer's ERG Needs Growth Relatedness Energy Expectancy Theory suggests that a worker's behavior is based on three factors: 1. Expectancy - beliefs about the link between trying to perform a behavior and actually performing well. It is similar to efficacy. 2. Instrumentality - belief that performing a given behavior is associated with a particular outcome 3. Valence - the value that a person places on an outcome (how important it is to perform better on a job). Adult Learning Theory (ALT) was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn. Recognizing the limitations of formal education theories, educational psychologists developed this theory of adult learning theory. Malcolm Knowles is most frequency associated with ALT. It is based on the ff: assumptions: 1. Adults have a need to know why they are learning something. 2. Adults have a need to be self-directed. 3. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situations. 4. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach. 5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Information Processing Theory This theory gives more emphasis to the internal processes that occur when training content is learnedand retained. This theory proposes that information or messages taken in by learner undergo several transformations in the brain. External events influencing learning 1. changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus that affect attention 2. informing the learner of the objectives to establish expectation 3. enhancing perceptual features of the material, drawing attention of the learner to certain features. 4. verbal instruction, pictures, diagrams and maps suggesting ways to code the training content so it can be stored in memory. 5. meaning learning context creating cues that facilitate coding. 6. demonstration of verbal instructions helping to organize the learner's response as well as facilitating the selection of correct response. Age Influences on Learning 1. Gen Z – born after 1997, they are the first social generation to have grown up with access to the Internet and portable digital technology from a young age, members of Generation Z, even if not necessarily digitally literate, have been dubbed “digital natives.” 2. Milleniums (Generation Y or nexters) – refer to people born after 1980. They are optimistic, willing to work and learn, and technology-literate; they appreciate diversity 3. Gen Xers - refers to people born from 1961 to 1980. They need feedback and flexibility; they dislike close supervision. They have experienced change all their lives (in terms of parents, homes, and cities). They value a balance between work and non-work 4. Baby boomers – are people born between 1945 and 1960. They are competitive, hardworking and concerned that all employees be fairly treated. 5. Traditionalists – are people born between 1920 and 1944. They are patriotic and loyal, and they have a great deal of knowledge of the history of organization and work life Preferred Learning Environment  Traditionalists prefer training rooms with stable, orderly learning environment. They do not like to be put on the spot in front of other trainees. They value direct presentation of info and training materials that are organized logically. They like trainers to ask them to share their experiences or anecdotes. But they also look to the trainer to provide expertise. Baby boomers respond well to interactive training activities – they like group activities. They are especially motivated to learn if they believing training content will benefit them personally. They need to work on translating the knowledge they have into skills. Gen Xers prefer a self-directed learning environment. They respond best to training methods that allow them to work at their own pace. They are highly motivated learners who view training as a way to increase their employability. They like to learn by doing, through experimentation and feedback. Though they are techno-savvy, milleniums like to learn by working alone and helping others. They prefer a blended learning approach that involves self-paced online learning for acquiring basic concepts, ideas, and knowledge followed by group activities and hands-on practice in which they work with others on questions, cases, and role plays. The Gen Z and Millennial generations, in particular, want to work with a company that stands for a purpose beyond simply making a profit and want to feel their work is making a positive societal or environmental impact. The 40-hour, 9-to-5 workweek is not as appealing to most Gen Z workers, who prefer space to pursue personal and professional fulfillment on their own terms. Instruction - refers to the trainer's manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn. Features of a Good Instruction 1. Objectives 2. Meaningful content 3. Opportunities to practice 4. Methods for committing training content to memory 5. Feedback 6. Observation, experience, and social interaction 7. Proper coordination and arrangement of the training program Implication of the Learning Process for Instruction 1. Employees need to know why they should learn 2. Employees need meaningful training content 3. Employees need opportunities to practice 4. Employees need to commit training content to memory 5. Employees need feedback 6. Employees learn through observation, experience, and social interaction 7. Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged 1. Employees need to know why they should learn. Objective refers to the purpose and expected outcome of training activities. Training objectives based on the training needs analysis help employees understand why they need training and what they need to learn. A training objectives has three components: 1. A statement of what the employee is expected to do (outcome) 2. A statement of the quality of performance that is acceptable (criterion) 3. A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to perform the desired outcomes (condition) Example: After training, the employee will be able to express concern (performance) to all irate customers by a brief (fewer than 10 words) apology, only after the customer has stopped talking (criteria) and no matter how upset the customer is (condition) Examples of Performance or Outcomes for Objectives 2. Employees need meaningful training contents. Training content refers to the physical, intellectual, and emotional environment in which training occurs. Some useful techniques for convincing trainees that the training is meaningful include: 1. telling stories about others' success especially former trainees 2. showing how training relates to company goals and strategy 3. discussing examples or cases that remind trainees of the good and poor work they have seen. 4. repeating the application of ideas in different contexts. 5. presenting evidence of the effectiveness of knowledge, skills, and behaviors. 6. providing hard copies or electronic access to well-organized materials so trainees can refer to them on the job or use them to teach others. 3. Employees need opportunities to practice. Practice refers to physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge. Pre-practice conditions: 1. provide info about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning. 2. encourage trainees to develop a strategy (metacognition) - refers to individual's control over one’s thinking. Two ways: monitoring and control. Monitoring includes identifying the problem or task, evaluating one's own learning progress and predicting what will occur as a result of learning. Control includes identifying the specific steps for completing a task or solving a problem 3. provide advance organizers - outlines, text, diagrams, and graphs, etc. 4. help trainees set challenging mastery of learning tasks. 5. create expectations for the trainees by communicating what will occur in training. 4. Employees need to commit content to memory 5. Employees Need Feedback Feedback is information about well people are meeting the training objectives. To be effective, feedback should focus on specific behaviors and be provided as soon as possible after the trainee’s behavior. Mediums for giving feedback: videotapes, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, performance data, a mentor or coach, written communications, or interpersonal interactions. 6. Employees Learn Through Observation, Experience, and Social Interaction Communities of Practice refers to group of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work accomplished. 7. Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged Training administration refers to coordinating activities, before, during, and after the program. Training administration involves: 1. Communicating courses and programs to employees. 2. Enrolling employees in courses and programs. 3. Preparing and processing any pre-training materials such as readings or tests. 4. Preparing materials that will be used in instruction. 5. Arranging for the training facility and room. 6. Testing equipment that will be used in instruction. 7. Having back-up equipment. 8. Providing support during instruction. 9. Distributing evaluation materials. 10. Facilitating communications between trainer and trainees during and after training. 11. Recording course completion in the trainees’ records or personnel files. Considerations in Designing Effective Training Program  Selecting and Preparing the Training Site Choosing Trainers How Trainers can Make the Training Site and Instruction Conducive to Learning Program Design Selecting and Preparing the Training Site A good training site should offer the following features: 1. It is comfortable and accessible. 2. It is quiet, private, and free from interruptions. 3. It has sufficient space for trainees to move easily around in, offers enough room for trainees to have adequate working space, and has good visibility for trainees to see each other, the trainer, and any visual displays or examples that will be used in training (videos, product samples, charts, slides) Details to be Considered in the Training Room Noise – from heating and air-conditioning systems, from adjacent rooms, from corridors and from outside the building Colors – pastel hues such as orange, green, blue and yellow are warm; variations of white are cold and sterile, black and brown are psychologically fatiguing Room Structure – should be somewhat square shape Lighting – main source should be fluorescent. Incandescent should be spread throughout the room and used with dimmers when projection is required. Wall and floor covering – should be carpeted and only meeting-related materials should be on the meeting walls. Meeting room chairs – chairs should have wheels, swivels, and backs that provide support for the lower lumbar region Glare – eliminate it from metal surfaces, TV monitors and mirrors Ceiling – 10-foot high is preferable Electrical outlets – should be available every six feet around the room. Outlets for the trainer should be available Acoustics – check the bounce or absorptions of sounds from the wall, ceiling, floor and furniture. Voice checks with 3 or four different people monitoring clarity and level. Seating Arrangement Fan-Type – conducive to allowing trainees to see from any point in the room; can easily switch from listening to practicing in groups, and easily communicate with everyone in the room. Effective for trainees working in groups and teams to analyze problems and synthesize information. Classroom-Type Seating – appropriate if the training involves knowledge acquisition, with lecture and audiovisual presentation being the primary training method used. Allows trainees to interact with the trainer but difficult for trainees to work in teams (particularly of the seats are not movable to other locations in the room Conference-Type Seating the most effective if the training emphasizes total group discussion with limited presentation and no small group interaction Horseshoe Arrangement – most appropriate if the training requires both presentation and total-group instruction. Choosing Trainers 1. Trainers should have expertise in the topic and experience in training. 2. Using managers and employees as trainers may help increase the perceived meaningfulness of the training content. 3. Using managers and employees can help increase their support for learning and reduce company’s dependency on outside consultants. It is personally rewarding to the managers and employees if they are being recognized for their expertise. How Trainers can make the Training Site and Instruction Conducive to Learning 1. Creating a learning setting - self-direction; collaboration 2. Preparation – contents; pace and timing of materials; mastery of the equipment and back-up materials in case technology fails; visuals should be available; arrive 15 minutes earlier. Greet the trainees as they enter 3. Interacting with trainees – responsibility for their learning; communicating the topics and the learning approach, and the expectations for trainees; building rapport; being aware of stereotypes; use questions; apply tools and techniques and use reference materials in helping them develop their own answers 4. Dealing with disruptive trainees – take charge of the session, communicate credentials and in a friendly but assertive way, tell them why T is important. 5. Managing group dynamics Program Design refers to the organization and coordination of the training program. A training program may include one or several courses. Each course may contain one or more lesson. Program design includes the purpose of the program as well as designing specific lessons within the program. Design Document Template Scope of Project Goal Audience Design time and checkpoint Length of the course Delivery Content Method Training time Objectives Resources Topical Outline Administration and Evaluation Links to Other Program Sample Design Document Purpose: to prepare managers to conduct effective performance feedback sessions with their direct reports Goals: Managers will be able to conduct performance feedback session using the problem-solving approach. Target Audience: Managers Training Time: 1 day Method: lecture, video, role plays Number of participants per session: 20-25 Locations: various Prerequisite: none Problems and Opportunities: new performance appraisal system introduced; manager dislikes conducting feedback sessions Instructors: Peter X and Marie Y Program objective refers to broader summary statements of the purpose of the program Course objective refers to the goals of the course of the lesson. Resources refer to materials, - cases, videos, models, process maps, lesson plans or guides for use by the trainer or participants – that need to be purchased or developed for the course. Who is involved includes trainers, program designers, and individuals who will be involved in the design, delivery and evaluation of the program. Course or Lesson Plan Typically, more detailed than the design document, it includes the specific steps involved in the lesson, instructor and trainee activities, and the time allocated to each topic included in the lesson. A detailed lesson plan translates the content and sequence of training activities into a guide that is used by the trainer to help deliver the training. It includes the sequence of activities and identifies the administrative details. Sample of a Detailed Lesson Plan Course Title: Conducting an Effective Performance Feedback Session Lesson Title: Using the problem-solving style in the feedback interview Lesson Length: Full day Learning Objectives: 1. describe the 8 key behaviors used in the problem-solving style of giving appraisal feedback without error. 2. demonstrate the 8 key behaviors in an appraisal feedback role play without error. Sample… continuation Target Audience: Managers Prerequisite: None Room Arrangement: Fan-type Materials and Equipment needed: laptops, overhead projector, pens, transparencies, videotape titled “Performance Appraisal Interviews,” role plays exercises Evaluation & Assignment: Role-play; read article titled “Conducting Effective Interview Comment/s: article needs to be distributed two weeks prior to session Sample of a Detailed Lesson Plan Lesson Plan Overview the lesson plan overview matches major activities of the training program and specific time or time interval. Example: