EDCOG 6 Notes PDF

Unit 1: THE LEARNER, THE TEACHER, & THE ENVIRONMENT 1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use words well, both when writing EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING and speaking. Well-developed v...

Unit 1: THE LEARNER, THE TEACHER, & THE ENVIRONMENT 1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use words well, both when writing EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING and speaking. Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words. THE LEARNER 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to be excellent at reasoning, The learner is an embodied spirit. They are neither body nor spirit alone but a union of a recognizing patterns and logically analyzing problems. Ability to think conceptually sentient body and a rational soul. The body experiences sensations and feels pleasure and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns. and pain while the soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the source of intellectual 3. Visual-Spatial: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately abstraction, self-reflection, and free rational volition. Both the body and the soul exist in and abstractly. mutual dependence (Kelly, 1965). 4. Bodily Kinesthetic: Ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully. The learner has the power to see, hear, touch, smell, and taste; perceive, imagine, retain, 5. Musical Intelligence: Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timber. recognize past mental acts, conceive ideas, make judgments, reason out, feel, and choose. 6. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Capacity to be self-aware and in-tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. The Fundamental Equipment of the Learner 7. Interpersonal Intelligence: Capacity to detect and respond appropriately to moods, motivations, and desires of others. Cognitive Faculties Appetitive Faculties 8. Naturalistic Intelligence: Ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals, and Includes memory, creative ability, Includes the feeling, the emotion, and the other objects in nature. intuition, and intellect learner’s rational will. 9. Existential Intelligence: Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence such as, “What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get here?” Factors that Contribute to the Differences Among Learners or the Elements of the Learner Gardner (2013) asserts that regardless of which subject you teach—”the arts, the 1. Ability. The students’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in purposeful sciences, history, or math”—you should present learning materials in multiple ways. activity. It determines their capacity to understand and assimilate information for Gardner goes on to point out that anything you are deeply familiar with “you can describe their own use and application. and convey in several ways. We teachers discover that sometimes, our own mastery of a 2. Aptitude. Refers to the students’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural capacity topic is tenuous, when a student asks us to convey the knowledge in another way and we to learn certain skills. are stumped.” Thus, converting information in multiple ways not only helps students 3. Interest. Various activities that students undertake due to a strong appeal or learn the material, it also helps educators increase and reinforce our mastery of the attraction. content. 4. Familial and Cultural Background. Students who come from different socioeconomic backgrounds manifest a wide range of behavior. Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory can be used for curriculum development, 5. Attitudes and Values. Students have unique ways of thinking and reacting. planning instruction, selection of course activities, and related assessment strategies. Confronted with the same situation in the learning environment, each one would Gardner points out that everyone has strengths and weaknesses in various intelligences, react differently depending on their personal characteristics. which is why educators should decide how best to present course material given the a. Positive Attitudes: Curiosity, Responsibility, Creativity, and Persistence subject-matter and individual class of students. Indeed, instruction designed to help students learn material in multiple ways can trigger their confidence to develop areas in Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences which they are not as strong. In the end, students’ learning is enhanced when instruction Howard Earl Gardner (July 11, 1943) is an American developmental psychologist who is includes a range of meaningful and appropriate methods, activities, and assessments. a professor of Cognition and Education at Harvard University and author of over twenty books translated into thirty languages. While Gardner’s MI have been conflated with “learning styles,” Gardner himself denies that they are one in the same. The problem Gardner has expressed with the idea of In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner “learning styles” is that the concept is ill defined and there is no persuasive evidence that theorizes that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of the learning style analysis produces more effective outcomes than a ‘one size fits all intelligence. While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, they most approach’” (as cited in Strauss, 2013). likely possess a range of abilities. 1  Powers of a Teacher in the Classroom Learning Styles 1. Exert Power: Knowledge and experience that a teacher brings with them into the Learning styles are differential preferences for processing certain types of information or classroom. simply, processing information in certain ways. 2. Referent Power: A measure of how much students like and respect a teacher. 1. Environmental Elements: sound, light, temperature, seating design 3. Reward Power: The ability to provide approval, privileges, or some other form of 2. Emotional Elements: motivation, conformity, responsibility, task persistence, compensation. structure 4. Coercive Power: The opposite of reward power, it is the power to give students 3. Sociological Elements: alone, pair, peer, group, authority, variety punishments, corrections, and disciplinary measures. 4. Physiological Elements: auditory, visual, tactual, kinesthetic, intake, time of the 5. Legitimate Power: By just being a teacher, a person has a certain amount of day, mobility) authority over their students. 5. Psychological Elements: analytic, global, impulsive, reflective THE ENVIRONMENT THE TEACHER Learning environments are places where people learn which includes physical spaces Teachers are professional educators. They have volunteered to accept and assume some such as classrooms, schools, and even virtual spaces. The environment provides a safe of the responsibility for education since parents send their children to school indirectly and conducive space for learning which is tangent with fulfilling the socio-emotional delegating some of the responsibility for their children’s education to the teachers, aspect of the learner. hoping that their children will receive knowledge as a provision for success in the future. Additionally, not everyone can apply to be a teacher for they not only serve as teachers Types of Learning Environment but they are also able to position themselves as educators who are responsible for the 1. Learner-Centered development of their students. 2. Knowledge-Centered 3. Assessment-Centered The teacher is an essential element of education that is very influential in the learning 4. Community-Centered process: the existence, role, and function of the teacher is a necessity that cannot be denied. There is no education without the presence of a teacher for they are the determinant of the direction and systematics of learning starting from the curriculum, UNIT 2: THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING facilities, forms of patterns to how students should learn properly and correctly in order EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING to access themselves to knowledge and life values (Haraphap, 2022). The principles of learning provide additional insight into what makes people learn most Basic Concepts effectively. These principles have been discovered, tested, and used in practical 1. Strategy of Teaching: The science of developing a plan to attain a goal and to situations. guard against undesirable results. 1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by 2. Methods of Teaching: A plan involving a sequence of steps to achieve a given goal the learner: People learn what they want to learn, see what they want to see, and or objective. hear what they want to hear. 3. Technique of Teaching: A personalized style of carrying out a particular step of a 2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas: given method. This includes the learning process of perceiving, deciding, acting, and feedbacking. 3. Learning (behavioral change) is the consequence of experience: People Knowledge Required of a Teacher become responsible when they have really assumed responsibility, they become 1. Content Knowledge: The understanding of learning contents and the ability to independent when they have experienced independent behavior, they become able translate them into meaningful forms for the students to consume. when they have experienced success, they begin to feel important when they are 2. Pedagogical Knowledge: Research-based connections between teaching and important to somebody. learning. 4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process: Cooperation fosters learning. 2  5. Learning is an evolutionary process: It involves stages of learning which begins 6. Law of Intensity: In the classroom, demonstrations, skits, and role playing with ignorance, awareness, understanding, commitment, enactment, and constant increase the learning experience of the students because they will learn more from reflection. the actual thing rather than from a substitute. The more intense the material 6. Learning is sometimes a painful process: We start with being unaware of getting taught, the likelier it will be retained. things wrong, to realizing that we have got it wrong before getting it right, and 7. Law of Freedom: Things freely learned are best learned. The greater the freedom finally getting it right without thinking much about it. enjoyed by the students in class, the greater they experience intellectual and moral 7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself. advancement. 8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual. 9. The process of problem solving and learning is highly unique and individual. LAWS ACCORDING TO CONNECTIONISM (THORNDIKE) Connectionism is a learning theory that presents learning as the result of a connection LAWS OF LEARNING (THORNDIKE, 1932) between a stimulus and a response. A stimulus can be a thing or an occurrence that 1. Law of Effect: Learning can be said to have taken place properly when it results in brings about a result, and a response is a result of outcome. satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure from it. This emphasizes the role of 1. Law of Multiple Response or Varied Reactions: Implies that when an individual rewards and punishment in the process of learning. Getting a reward as a result of is confronted with a new situation, they respond in a variety of ways, trying one some learning motivates and encourages the learner to proceed with increased response first and then another, before arriving at the correct one. intensity and enthusiasm while punishment of any kind discourages the learner 2. Law of Attitude: Learning is guided by a total set or attitude. The learner performs and creates a distaste for that learning. However, in breaking undesirable habits a task properly if they have developed a healthy attitude towards the task. The and behavior modification, negative reinforcement is revolutionary in the rearing attitude of the learner determines not only what they will do but what will satisfy and education of children. them. 2. Law of Exercise: Based on practice and drills to learn something for a long period. 3. Law of Analogy: An individual responds to a new situation on the basis of the This is essentially constituted by two laws but further work and experiments on responses made by them in similar situations that happened in the past, making the law demonstrated that both the law of use and disuse does not result in responses by comparison or analogy. According to this law, the individual makes effective strengthening of the connection nor in the total weakening of the use of old experiences or acquisitions while learning a new situation. connection. 4. Law of Associative Shifting: States that any response may be elicited from the a. The Law of Use: Relates to the strengthening of the connection of stimulus learner, of which he is capable, in association with any situation to which he is (cause) and response (the behavior or reaction) with constant practice. sensitive. Simply, any response which is possible can be linked with any stimulus. Example: A child keeps on trying to ride a bicycle even after falling several Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a different one. This law times. elaborated a new theory of learning, known as the theory of conditioning. b. The Law of Disuse: Relates to the weakening of connection when not used frequently. 3. Law of Readiness: Refers to the degree of eagerness and inquisitiveness to learn UNIT 3: MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION something new. Readiness, according to Thorndike, is a preparation for action. If a EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING child is ready to learn, they learn more quickly, effectively, and with greater satisfaction. The right moments concerning the learning situation and the learner’s Objective-Related Principles of Teaching state of mind should be recognized and this knowledge must be maximized by the The following are guiding principles in determining and formulating learning objectives: teacher. In addition, the teacher should make an attempt to motivate the students 1. Begin with the end in mind; by stimulating their attention, interest, and curiosity. 2. Share lesson objectives with students; 4. Law of Primacy: Things learned first create a strong impression and what is taught 3. Lesson objectives must be in two to three domains: knowledge (cognitive), skill must be right the first time. What the students learn must be procedurally correct (psychomotor), and values (affective); and applied the very first time because teaching to unlearn wrong first impressions 4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives; is harder than teaching them right the first time. 5. Lesson objectives must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the 5. Law of Recency: This principle often determines the sequence of lectures within a Philippine Constitution and other laws and on the vision-mission statements of the course of instruction. Things most recently learned are best remembered. Frequent educational institution of which you are a part of; review and summarization help fix the materials covered in the learner’s mind. 6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking; and 3  7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART (Specific, The affective domain forms a hierarchical structure and is arranged from simpler feelings Measurable, Attainable, Result-Oriented and Relevant, Time-bound and Terminal). to those that are more complex. The hierarchical structure is based on the principle of internalization. Internalization refers to the process whereby a person’s affect toward an TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the effect is ‘internalized’ Bloom’s Cognitive Domain and consistently guides or controls the person’s behavior. 1. Knowledge or Recall: (Identify the capital of the Philippines) 2. Comprehension: Relates to translation, interpretation, and extrapolation (to Therefore, with the movement to more complexity, individuals become more involved, interpret a table showing the population density of the world) committed, and internally motivated. This domain is further categorized into following 3. Application: Uses abstractions in particular situations such as to predict the five levels: probable effect of a change in temperature on a chemical compound. 1. Receiving: Receiving refers to the student’s willingness to attend to particular 4. Synthesis: Puts parts together in a new form such as a unique communication, a phenomena or stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.). From a teaching plan of operation, and a set of abstract relations to produce an original piece of art. standpoint, it is concerned with getting, holding, and directing the student’s 5. Evaluation: Judges in terms of internal evidence or logical consistency and attention. Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a external evidence such as recognizing fallacies in an argument. thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner. Receiving represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the affective domain. Anderson’s Revised Taxonomy a. Key Words (Verbs): Asks, Chooses, Shows willingness, Describes, Follows, Definition Verbs Pays attention, Holds, Identifies, Locates, Names, Points to, Selects, Sits attentively. Remembering: Can the student Define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall, b. Examples (Learning Outcomes): The Pupil; Listens attentively to the teacher. recall or remember the repeat, reproduce, state Shows awareness of the importance of learning. Attends closely to the information? classroom activities. Understanding: Can the student Classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, explain ideas or concepts? locate, recognize, report, select, translate, 2. Responding: Responding refers to active participation on the part of the student. paraphrase At this level he not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize acquiescence in Applying: Can the student use the Choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, responding (reads beyond assignments) or satisfaction in responding (reads for information in a new way? illustrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write pleasure or enjoyment). The higher levels of this category include those instructional objectives that are commonly classified under interest; that is, those Analyzing: Can the student Appraise, compare, contrast, criticize, that stress the seeking out and enjoyment of particular activities. distinguish between the different differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, a. Key Words (Verbs): Answers, Replies, Responds, Assists, Complies, Conforms, parts? examine, experiment, question, test Discusses, Greets, Helps, Labels, Performs, Practices, Presents, Reads, Evaluating: Can the student justify Appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, Recites, Tells, Reports, Selects, Writes. a stand or decision? support, value, evaluate b. Examples (Learning Outcomes): The Pupil; Responds to the teacher’s question. Participates in a group discussion. Gives a presentation. Complies Creating: Can the student create a Assemble, construct, create, design, develop, with procedures or follows directions. new product or point of view? formulate, write 3. Valuing: Valuing is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Domains particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges in degree from the simpler Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective domains is demonstrated by behaviors indicating acceptance of a value (desires to improve group skills) to the more complex level of attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, values of concern, and responsibility. It is also commitment (assumes responsibility for the effective functioning of the group). indicated by the ability to listen and respond in interactions with others and the ability to Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, but clues to these demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the test values are expressed in the student’s overt behavior that is consistent and stable situation and the field of study. enough to make the value clearly identifiable. Instructional objectives that are commonly classified under attitudes and appreciation would fall into this category. 4  a. Key Words (Verbs): Completes, Describes, Differentiates, Explains, Follows, learned, such as an involuntary reaction, segmental, intersegmental, and Forms, Initiates, Invites, Joins, Justifies, Proposes, Reads, Reports, Shares, suprasegmental reflexes. Studies, Works. a. Key Words (Verbs): To flex, to stretch, to straighten, to extend, to inhibit, to b. Examples (Learning Outcomes): The Pupil; Demonstrates problem solving lengthen, to shorten, to tense, to stiffen, to relax attitude. Appreciates good literature. Supports ideas to improve proficiency. b. Examples (Observable Behavior): The learner responds physically instinctively. 4. Organizing: Organizing is concerned with bringing together values, resolving conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an internally consistent 2. Fundamental Movements: Basic fundamental movements are inherent movement value system. Thus the emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. patterns which are formed by combining reflex movements and are the basis for Learning outcomes may be concerned with the conceptualization of a value complex skilled movements. Basic movements can build a more complex set of (recognizes the responsibility of each individual for improving human relations) or movements. with the organization of a value system (develops a vocational plan that satisfies a. Key Words (Verbs): To crawl, to creep, to slide, to walk, to jump, to run, to his need for both economic security and social service). Instructional objectives grasp, to reach, to tighten, to support, to handle relating to the development of a philosophy of life would fall into this category. b. Examples (Observable Behavior): The learner; Changes location. Moves in a. Key Words (Verbs): Adheres, Alters, Arranges, Combines, Compares, space while remaining in one place. Moves extremities in coordinated Completes, Defends, Explains, Generalizes, Identifies, Integrates, Modifies, fashion. Orders, Organizes, Prepares, Relates, Synthesizes. b. Examples (Learning Outcomes): The Pupil; Spends more time in study than 3. Perceptual Abilities: Perceptual abilities refers to interpretation of various stimuli sports. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the study, family, and that enable one to make adjustments to the environment through visual, auditory, self. Understands and accepts own strengths and weaknesses. kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination. This entails cognitive as well as psychomotor behavior. It may include coordinated movements to respond to stimulus. 5. Characterization by Value or Value-Set: At Characterization level of the affective a. Key Words (Verbs): To catch, to bounce, to eat, to write, to balance, to bend, to domain, the individual has a value system that has controlled his behavior for a draw from memory, to distinguish by touching, to explore sufficiently long time for him to develop a characteristic lifestyle. Thus the behavior b. Examples (Observable Behavior): The learner; Discriminates visually e.g. is pervasive, consistent, and predictable. Learning outcomes at this level cover a Classify objects by colors. Discriminates auditory e.g. Differentiate sounds, broad range of activities, but the major emphasis is on the fact that the behavior is track noises. Discriminates kinesthetically. Discriminates tactually. typical or characteristic of the student. Instructional objectives that are concerned Coordinates two or more perceptual abilities e.g. Walk on rope without with the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional) falling. would be appropriate here. a. Key Words (Verbs): Acts, Discriminates, Displays, Influences, Listens, 4. Physical Abilities: Physical abilities require endurance, strength, vigor, and agility Modifies, Performs, Practices, Proposes, Qualifies, Questions, Revises, Serves, which produces a sound, efficiently functioning body. This may include activities of Solves, Uses, Verifies. strenuous effort for a long period of time that results in muscular/cardiovascular b. Examples (Learning Outcomes): The Pupil; Shows self-reliance when endurance. working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). a. Key Words (Verbs): To endure, to improve, to increase, to stop, to start, to Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Values people for what they move precisely, to touch, to bend are, not how they look. b. Examples (Observable Behavior): The learner; Exerts tension. Moves quickly. Stops immediately. Endures fatigue. e.g. Performs sit-ups, Wrestles in the Harlow’s Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain ring, Bends a rod. It is organized according to the degree of coordination including involuntary responses as well as learned capabilities. Simple reflexes begin at the lowest level of the taxonomy 5. Skilled Movements: Skilled movements are the result of the acquisition of a degree while complex neuromuscular coordination makes up the higher levels. of efficiency when performing a complex task. A high level of efficiency is achieved 1. Reflex Movements: Involuntary movements are automatic reactions elicited to perform a complex task. without learning in response to some stimuli. These are the reactions that are not a. Key Words (Verbs): To waltz, to type, to play the piano, to plane, to file, to skate, to juggle, to paint, to dive, to fence, to golf, to change 5  b. Examples (Observable Behavior): The learner; Changes or modifies basic - Theories refer to a set of facts, concepts, and principles that describe the body movement patterns. Uses a tool or implements in an adaptive or skilled possible underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human manner. e.g. Improves catching and batting skills, Performs a hurdle run, learning, development, and behavior. Types words on computer. - Laws are firmly established, thoroughly tested principles or theories. b. Skill 6. Non-discursive Communication: Non-discursive communication is - Manipulative Skills communication through bodily movements ranging from posture to gestures, - Thinking Skills are skills beyond recall and comprehension. It is creative movements, facial expressions, and acting a part in a play through concerned with the application of what was learned, evaluation, critical sophisticated choreographics. Body postures, gestures, and facial expressions and creative thinking, and synthesis. (Divergent thinking, Fluent thinking, efficiently executed in skilled dance movement and choreographics. Flexible thinking, Original thinking, Elaborative thinking, Convergent a. Key Words (Verbs): To gesture, to stand, to sit, to express facially, to dance thinking, Problem-solving thinking, Critical thinking, Creative thinking skillfully, to perform skillfully, to paint skillfully, to play skillfully c. Attitudes and Values: It is in the teaching of values that the teaching of facts, b. Examples (Observable Behavior): The learner moves expressively; skills, and concepts becomes connected to the life of the students, thus, interpretatively; communicates emotions acquiring meaning. Without the value-level of teaching, we contribute to the development of persons who have big heads but tiny hearts or intellectual giants but emotional dwarfs. SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT Guiding Principles In The Selection And Organization Of The Content Are: Guiding Principles in the Selection and Use of Teaching Strategies 1. A guiding principle related to the subject matter content is to observe the following 1. Learning is an active process: We have to actively engage learners in learning qualities in the selection and the organization of content: activities and opportunities if we want them to learn what we intend to teach. a. Validity: Teaching the content that we ought to teach according to the national 2. The more sense involved in learning, the more and better the learning is. standards explicit in the K-12 Basic Education Curriculum. 3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning. b. Significance: What we teach should respond to the needs and interests of the 4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to the students’ everyday life. learners, hence meaningful and significant. 5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information. c. Balance: Content includes not only facts but also concepts and values. 6. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of d. Self-sufficiency: Content fully covers the essentials. information. Integration incorporates successful, research-based and brain-based e. Interests: Teachers consider the level of interest of the students. instructional strategies. An integrated approach is also interdisciplinary and f. Utility: What has been learned has a function even after examinations are over. multidisciplinary. g. Feasibility: The content is feasible in the sense that the essential content can Brain-Based Strategies: be covered in the amount of the time available for instruction. a. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving. b. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation. 2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts. We cannot c. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers. do away with facts but be sure to go beyond them by constructing an increasingly d. Classroom strategies using visual processing. To help students organize their richer and more sophisticated knowledge base and by working out a process of thinking, teachers use graphics. conceptual understanding. e. Songs, jingles, and raps. f. Mnemonic strategies assist students in recalling important information. 3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill, and affective elements. g. Writing strategies: Make students write their own word problem and make a. Cognitive them ask their classmates to solve them. - Fact is an idea or action that can be verified. h. Active review: Let students conduct their own review. - Concept is a categorization of events, places, people, ideas. i. Hands-on activities - Principle is the relationship between and among facts and concepts. - Hypotheses are educated guesses about relationships. 6  UNIT 4: DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING In the teacher-centered approach, the teacher is perceived to be the only reliable source of information in contrast to the learner-centered approach which is premised on INTRODUCTION the belief that the learner is also an important resource because they too know A teaching approach is a set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of learning something and are therefore capable of sharing something. Teaching consists of teacher which is translated into the classroom. It springs from a teacher’s own philosophy of telling and prescribing what learners should do. The learner is a passive recipient of education, the nature of education, the role of the teacher and that of the student. instruction. The teacher-centered approach is also teacher-dominated. A teaching strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal. A In the subject matter-centered approach, subject-matter gains primacy over the strategy applied to many disparate fields such as military strategy, economic strategy, learner. By all means, the teacher finishes teaching the subject matter as scheduled even teaching strategy, etc. if learners have not learned it. Sticking to the course syllabus or lesson plan is the priority of subject matter-centered teachers. This approach is also teacher-dominated. A teaching method is a systematic way of doing something. It implies an orderly logical The teacher does what they planned without necessarily considering the learners’ arrangement of steps. It is more procedural. interests, concerns, and situation. In contrast, in the learner-centered classroom, the teacher makes adjustments in their lesson plans to accommodate learners’ interests and A teaching technique is a well-defined procedure used to accomplish a specific activity concerns. or task. It is a teacher’s particular style or trick used to accomplish an immediate objective. More than one technique may be available for accomplishing a specific activity An interactive classroom will have more student talk and less teacher talk. Students are or task. given the opportunity to interact with the teacher and with other students. In a teacher-dominated classroom, only the teacher’s voice is heard. They are the sole Techniques are consistent with a given approach, strategy, and method where the dispenser of information. relationship is shown to be: Approach 🠆 Strategy 🠆 Method 🠆 Technique In the constructivist approach, students are expected to construct knowledge and An approach gives rise to a strategy which may use more than one method of teaching. meaning out of what they are taught by connecting them to prior knowledge and One teaching method may be employed differently by two different teachers whose meaning out of what they are taught by connecting them to prior knowledge. In the teaching style may lead to the use of different techniques. Technique has something to do “banking” approach, the teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty” minds of the with the teacher’s personal style of teaching. However, most often than not, people may students for students to commit to memory. The students are perceived to be “empty interchange strategy and method. receptacles” waiting to be filled. These facts that are deposited are withdrawn gradually every time quizzes or tests are given until the end of the term, everything is withdrawn in TEACHING APPROACHES the final examinations. Thus, students’ minds are once more empty and ready to be filled in the next school year. Examples of Teaching Approaches Teacher-centered Learner-centered The use of an integrated teaching approach makes the teacher connect what they teach to the other lessons of the same subject (intradisciplinary) or connect their lessons with Subject matter-centered Learner-centered other subjects, making an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach. The use of the disciplinal approach limits the teacher to discussing the lesson within the boundary Teacher-dominated Interactive of their subject. “Banking” approach Constructivist A collaborative approach will welcome group work, team work, partnerships, and group discussions while an individualistic approach will want students to work on their Disciplinal Integrated own. Individualistic Collaborative In a direct teaching approach, the teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what Indirect, Guided Direct is to be taught while in the guided approach, the teacher guides the learner to discover 7 things for themselves. In the guided approach, the teacher facilitates the learning process f. Assess learning at the end (summative assessment) by allowing the learner to be engaged in the learning process with the teacher’s guidance. The lesson objective has something to do with skill and therefore, the assessment tool must be a performance test (or practical test). Such a technique requires careful Other Teaching Approaches structuring of the entire procedure. Attention is focused on every detail of the procedure. 1. Research-based Approach. Implies that teaching and learning are anchored on research findings. Steps of Direct or Lecture Method in Teaching Facts, Principles, or Laws 2. Whole Child Approach. The learning process itself takes into account not only the a. Give a short introduction by providing the rationale academic needs of the learners, but also their emotional, creative, psychological, b. Present your lesson spiritual, and developmental needs. A highly cerebral approach is far from holistic, c. Develop the lesson by explaining, illustrating it with diagrams if appropriate, and neither is the approach which emphasizes only the physical development of the giving concrete examples child. d. Give application of the lesson 3. Metacognitive Approach. The teaching process brings the learner to the process e. Check for understanding and provide feedback (or while you are in the process of of thinking about thinking. The learner reflects on what they learned and on their teaching). This is also called formative assessment. ways of learning. They reflect on why they succeeded one time but failed the other time. Instructional Characteristics 4. Problem-based Approach. As the name implies, the teaching-learning process is 1. The strategy is teacher-directed. focused on problems. Time is spent on analyzing and solving problems. 2. The emphasis is on the teaching of skill. Each step must be mastered, hence the In summary, approaches vary in the degree of teacher and learner engagement, focus, students gain “how” rather than “what”. It is termed as the procedural knowledge. number of learners involved in the teaching-learning process. 3. Taught in a step-by-step manner, ensuring the learning of the entire procedure with no steps missed. 4. Lesson objectives include easily observed behaviors that can be measured accurately. If the lesson is to develop skill in performing five steps of a particular experiment, such skill can be observed and measured. The level of performance can be assessed from the number of steps performed correctly. 5. This is a form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed as behavioral modeling. 6. This can also be used to teach facts, principles, and laws. On the basis of student and teacher involvement, these are categorized as direct or expository and guided or exploratory. Guidelines for Effective Use in Teaching Skills 1. The students must be given ample time for practice. DIRECT OR EXPOSITORY APPROACH 2. They must be included in the planning stage since this technique is highly 1. Direct Instruction or Lecture Method task-oriented and aimed at mastery of every step. The lesson objectives are Is aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge which is knowledge student-based. exercised in the performance of tasks. Procedural knowledge refers to skills needed in 3. Describe the testing situation and specify the level of performance expected. the performance of a task such as focusing the microscope, doing powerpoint 4. Divide complex skills and understanding into subskills or into its component steps presentations, playing basketball, sewing a pair of pajamas. Direct instruction is also so they can be taught easily and with precision. used for lessons that are factual and non-controversial. 5. Design your own strategy in teaching each skill which will eventually contribute to the learning of the entire skill. Steps of the Direct or Lecture Method in Teaching Skills 6. Before the demonstration, carefully rehearse all steps. The steps should be a. Provide the rationale observed and followed. b. Demonstrate the skill 7. Assign practice for short periods of time, then continue learning by imitating c. Provide guided practice until mastery others. d. Check for understanding and provide feedback 8. Provide feedback and encouragement through praises. Positively motivated, the e. Provide extended practice and transfer students will never get tired practicing. 8  9. Be able to construct good performance-based tests. 2. Problem Solving Method A teaching strategy that employs the scientific method in searching for information. The Guidelines for Effective Use in Teaching Declarative Knowledge five basic steps of the scientific method or investigatory process are: 1. Be sure that the facts, principles, and laws are correctly, clearly, and adequately Sensing and defining the problem explained. Formulating hypothesis 2. Use visual aids to concretize abstract principles and laws. Testing the likely hypothesis by observing, conducting an experiment, and 3. Illustrate laws and principles with concrete examples. collecting and organizing data through normative surveys 4. Present facts meaningfully by citing their significance and by connecting them with Analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating evidence everyday life. Formulating conclusion This method is often used in science and mathematics classes. 2. Demonstration Method In this method, the teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done 3. Project Method while the other students become observers. This approach is employed in presenting In this method, learners solve a practical problem over a period of several days or weeks. lessons that use sophisticated equipment and technical know-how. Materials that are not It may involve organizing a fundraising campaign for the flood victims, doing an advocacy easily available or expensive are used sparingly in a demonstration. The demonstrator is for breastfeeding, or publishing a class newspaper. The projects may be suggested by the knowledgeable in preparing the apparatus needed according to the steps to be followed. teacher, but they are planned and executed by the students themselves, individually or in The rest of the class becomes focused on the activity and concentration on the subject is groups. Project work focuses on applying, not imparting, specific knowledge or skills, and assured. on improving student involvement and motivation in order to foster independent thinking, self-confidence, and social responsibility. Effective Guidelines Before Use 4. Cooperative Learning Effective Guidelines During Use This method makes use of a classroom organization where students work in groups or teams to help each other learn. Concepts from small group theory and group dynamics Effective Guidelines After Use serve as the basis upon which skills in democratic procedures and collaborations are developed. This approach evolved strategies and procedures that can help small groups INDIRECT, GUIDED, OR EXPLORATORY APPROACH solve their own problems and acquire information through collective effort. The learning Indirect instruction method is best used when the learning process is inquiry-based, the environment is characterized by strong motivation and smooth interpersonal result is discovery and the learning context is a problem. This can come as an inquiry or interactions. discovery method, problem-solving method, and project method. These three methods are not mutually exclusive. The inquiry method can become a problem-solving method Characteristic Features when the focus of inquiry is a problem to be solved. In the process of inquiry, the 1. Cooperative Incentive Structure: One where two or more individuals are students are led to discover something they have not known before. These inquiry and interdependent for a reward. They will share if they are successful as a group. problem-solving may be made as a student project or if given a project, the student will 2. Cooperative Task Structure: A situation in which two or more individuals are employ a lot of inquiry and may end up with a lot of discovery. allowed, encouraged or required to work together on some tasks, coordinating their efforts to complete the task. 1. Inquiry Method In helping students to learn, teachers must provide them with opportunities to explore, Academic & Social inquire, and discover new learnings. The core of inquiry is a spontaneous and Structure Brief Description Functions self-directed exploration. Textbook-dictated procedures do not allow an active probe into the unknown. Curiosity, special interests, and instant queries among the young demand Teambuilding immediate answers. Expressing ideas and Each student shares something to the Round Robin opinions, creating class, taking turns. stories, experiencing 9  equal participation, from a unit; getting acquainted with participation; listening teammates. Generating and revising Classbuilding Students think by themselves on a topic hypotheses; inductive Think-Pair provided by the teacher; they pair up with reasoning; deductive Seeing alternative Share another student to discuss it; they then reasoning; application, hypotheses, values, share their thoughts with the class participation, Each student moves to a corner of the problem-solving, involvement room representing a teacher-determined approaches. Corners alternative. Students discuss within Analysis of concepts corners, then listen to and paraphrase Students write simultaneously on a piece Knowing and respecting into components; ideas from other corners. of char paper, drawing main concepts, different points of view, Team Word understanding multiple supporting elements, and bridges meeting classmates. Webbing relations among ideas; representing the relation of ideas in a differentiating concept. Communication Building concepts, role-taking. Students attempt to match the Vocabulary Multifunctional arrangement of objects on a grid of development, Match Mine another student using oral communication communication skills, Assessing prior Each student in turn writes one answer as only. role-taking ability. knowledge, practicing a paper and a pencil are passed around the skills, recalling Roundtable group. With simultaneous roundtables, Mastery information, creating more than one pencil and paper are used cooperative art; team at once. The teacher asks a question; students Reviewing, checking for building, participation. Numbered consult to make sure everyone knows the knowledge, Heads answer, then one student is called upon to comprehension, Students stand in pairs in two concentric Together Checking for answer. tutoring. circles. The inside circle faces out; the Inside understanding; review; outside circle faces in. Students use flash Outside processing; helping; Students memorize facts using a flash card cards or respond to the teacher’s Circle tutoring; sharing; game. The game is structured so that there questions as they rotate to each new meeting classmates. Color-coded is a maximum probability of success at Memorizing facts, partner. Co-op Cards each step, moving from short-term to helping, praising long-term memory. Scoring is based on Mastery and Students work in pairs to create or master improvement. presentation of new content. They consult with partners from material; concept Partners other teams. They then share their Students work in pairs within groups of development. products or understanding with the other four. Within pairs, students alternate—one Presentation and partner in their team. solves a problem while the other coaches. Practicing skills, communication skills. Praise Check After every two problems, the pair checks helping, praising to see if they have the same answers as the Each student on the team becomes an Acquisition and other pair. “expert” on one topic by working with presentation of new members from other teams assigned the material; review; Concept Development Jigsaw corresponding expert topic. Upon informed debate. returning to their teams, each one in turn Interdependence, status Students interview each other in pairs, Sharing personal teaches the group; and students are all equalization. Three-Step first one way, then the other. Students each information such as assessed on all aspects of the topic. Interview share with the group the information they hypotheses, reactions to learned in the interview. a poem, conclusions Co-op Co-op Students work in groups to produce a Learning and sharing 10  particular group product to share with the complex material, often whole class; each student makes a with multiple sources; 10. Metacognitive Approach particular contribution to the group. evaluation; application; The prefix “meta” means beyond. Therefore, a metacognitive approach goes beyond analysis; synthesis. cognition. It allows students to think about their own way of thinking. It has something to do with students monitoring their own cognitive processes as they are engaged in their Conflict resolution; cognitive tasks. presentation skills. 11. Constructivist Approach 5. Peer Tutoring or Peer Teaching One principle of learning that should guide teaching in the 21st century emphasized by It is said that “the best way to learn something is to teach it.” Make students teach each Linda Darling-Hamond (2008) and colleagues is that “students come to the classroom other in a “Think, Pair, Shaire” manner. After teaching, we ask each student to get a with prior understandings and experiences and to promote student learning, teachers partner. must address and build upon this prior knowledge.” The constructivist approach is anchored on this. 6. Partner Learning This method implies learning with a partner where a student is allowed to choose a Constructivists view learning as an active process that results from self-constructed partner from among the class. Students are able to rehearse what they have learned and meaning. A meaningful connection is established between prior knowledge and the explore their understanding of the content with a partner. This also suggests assigning a present learning activity. study buddy and study buddies become responsible for each other’s learning. Despite this, each student is still held accountable for their own learning. 12. Integrated Approach An intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approach where there are no 7. Deductive vs Inductive Method walls that clearly separate one subject from the rest. It is observed when teachers The deductive method is when the teacher directly tells or shows what they want to integrate the subdisciplines within a subject area. Integrating listening, reading, writing, teach, this is why it is also referred to as direct instruction. The deductive approach is speaking, and viewing in language arts is a common example. teacher-dominated. The teacher begins with the abstract rule, generalization, principle, a. Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and ends with specific examples and concrete details. b. Problem-Based Learning (PBL) The inductive method, or indirect instruction, happens with starting a lesson with APPROPRIATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE LESSON questions, problems, and details, then ending up with answers, generalizations, and Introductory, Opening, or Initiatory Activities conclusions. The inquiry method, problem solving method, and project method fall under Opening activities are meant to serve as starters, unfreezing activities to make students indirect, guided, and exploratory approach to instruction. feel at ease, to motivate students to participate, and to set the tone for the day. OTHER APPROACHES Developmental Activities 8. Blended Learning To avoid clock-watchers among the students, do not do the same things everyday. This approach is facilitated by the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching, and styles of learning, and is based on transparent communication For Data amongst all parties involved in a course. This is also described as integrative learning, Interview Library research Internet research Gathering hybrid learning, and multi-method learning. It combines classroom learning, mobile learning, and online learning. Lecture (do not Inviting resource Reading Field trip abuse) speakers 9. Reflective Teaching Both students and teachers learn through an analysis and evaluation of past experiences. Experiment Panel Discussion Hands-on Learning Case Study Without analysis, no new learning and ideas can be constructed. Through reflection, the students’ and teacher’s experience acquires meaning, hence they are able to formulate For Organizing and Summarizing their own concepts that can be applied to new learning situations. 11 For Application or Creative Activities 2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives. Decide what you want to accomplish and then employ the tools that are For Concluding Activities most likely to achieve results. Do not let the media that are available to you determine how or what you will teach. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS 3. If possible, use a variety of tools. Using videos, computers, overheads, and the 1. Interactive. Let learners interact with the teacher, their classmates, and with the chalkboard not only keeps students’ interest but also responds to the needs of learning material. those who receive information in different ways. 2. Innovative. Introduce new teaching methods for fresh teaching and do not overuse 4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to ensure it is a single method. working properly. Nothing is more frustrating to you or to the students in the 3. Integrative. Connect lessons to one another, to other disciplines, and to life. process of instruction than to find that the overhead projector or the LCD, for 4. Inquiry-based. Ask questions and allow the learners to search for answers. instance, does not work in the process of instruction. 5. Collaborative. Allow learners to work together. 5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of media given 6. Constructivist. Make learners construct knowledge and meaning by connecting below: lessons with their past experiences. a. Learn how to use the instructional material. Before using it, make sure you 7. Varied. Do not stick to a single teaching method. Draw appropriate methods from know how to manipulate it to obtain the desired product. Listen to the record the repertoire of teaching methods you possess. or view the film ahead. Check the correct size and complete parts of real 8. Experiential. Engage learners in varied activities incorporating hands-on, objects, photographs, or models to be presented. minds-on, and hearts-on experiences. b. Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may 9. Metacognitive. Allow learners to think about their cognitive and thought need. processes. c. Provide a conducive environment. Arrange the chairs, tables, and the 10. Reflective. Allow students to reflect on what they have learned and how they have equipment and materials. Provide sufficient lighting and ventilation. learned it. d. Explain the objectives of the lesson. e. Stress what is to be watched or listened to carefully. f. State what they will be expected to do with the information they will UNIT 5: SELECTION AND USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS learn. Discussion or a test may follow. EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING g. There is a need to summarize or review the experience. Prepare measures that can assess their gains based on the objectives. There is no drab lesson if appropriate media are used in its presentation. When properly selected and used, their impact on the attention, sustained interest, participation of students has long been recognized to a point that this wide collection of teaching tools earnt the title “sub-strategies”. It is not surprising to see these materials, devices, and instruments accumulated in every teacher’s storehouse. Of late, more teaching technologies such as recordings, projectors and computers, CD ROMS, and videos have been available in some schools. UNIT 6: ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING There are two subjects in Educational Technology of three units each, where the use and EDCOG 6 | PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING selection of instructional materials will be exhaustively discussed. The teaching cycle is not complete without the assessment of learning. This Chapter will PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING AND USING OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS be devoted to a discussion of the guiding principles in the assessment of learning and on For optimum learning, let us observe the following general principles in the use of assessment tools in the three phases of instruction. instructional materials (IMs). 1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING teacher. 1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. We teach with a certain objective to attain. 12  2. Assessment tool should match the performance objective. do remedial teaching at once without having to wait for the result of summative 3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the learners. evaluations. If we wait until the end of the semester to check on the status of the 4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’ learning styles and multiple students’ learning, it may be too late and time has been wasted pounding on the heads of intelligences and so must come up with a variety of ways of assessing learning. the learners without knowing that their inability to learn was perhaps due to the lack of 5. To contribute to the building of a culture of success in the school, it is pedagogically mastery of the prerequisite skills. sound that in our assessment techniques, we give some positive feedback along with not-so-good ones. After Instruction 6. Emphasize on self-assessment. To find out the proof of learning, you will do a summative evaluation. This is also referred 7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils or students, and that it is to as an assessment of learning. If you gave a pre-test prior to instruction, then you will possible that all students, even those form limited backgrounds, will have access to give a post-test after the instruction. If you used the KWL technique, go back to it and ask opportunities and therefore can achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be your students to share what they have learned (L). If you discover that your lesson abandoned. objectives were not achieved (although this may not happen if we used formative 8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or as a disciplinary assessments), find out why and employ remedial measures like re-teaching, measure. peer-tutoring, and the like. 9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and clearly to parents. APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT TOOLS 10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances over Appropriateness of assessment tools depend on the lesson objectives, the attainment of out-of-context drill items. which is what you are assessing. 11. To ensure learning, do formative assessments. 12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make use of multiple sources. The teacher-made test or the paper-and-pencil test in many forms is the most common tool used to assess learning. However, it has been abused and misused. Many a time, the ASSESSMENT IN THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF INSTRUCTION paper-and-pencil test is not appropriate as an evaluation tool and yet because it is the Prior to Instruction tool with which we are most familiar, it is still used. It is worthy to note, however, that You may give a pre-teaching assessment to determine where your students are in relation more and more teachers are beginning to use more authentic tools of assessment. to your lesson. You can make use of a written pre-test, the KWL technique, or by simply Performance tests are said to be more authentic than mere paper-and-pencil tests. The asking students some questions to diagnose their entry knowledge and skills. so-called Practical tests in skill subjects like PE and laboratory subjects. Computers and the like are examples of performance tests. The most reliable way to test if our students Research found that “teachers in schools with high achievement rates use learned the skill we intend to teach is by way of hands-on exercise, by way of actual pre-assessments to support targeted teaching of skills important to learn for performance. In no way will a paper-and-pencil test be able to authentically test skill in standardized tests, as well as to group students for re-teaching.” dancing, playing, focusing the microscope, using computer programs, etc. Another example of an authentic evaluation tool is the Portfolio assessment. What is a better way During Instruction of showing the development in the child’s writing skill if not through a display of a There are many ways by which learning can be assessed in the process of teaching. We collection of the child’s written work for the past three or four months? can immediately find out if our learners can follow the lesson by posing oral questions or by observing them as they perform classroom activities or exercises. Giving a quiz is the If the performance test is for the assessment of skills learned, the assessment of learning most popular. Right there and then with their answers, with their quiz scores, and with in the affective domain, teacher’s observation of the students’ behavior, interviews with the way they conduct themselves in class activities, we already sense whether we are the students, reading of journal entries or students’ personal narratives, and rating scales already near or far from the attainment of our objectives. When we engage ourselves in are the most appropriate. this evaluation activity in the process of teaching, we are engaged in what we call formative evaluation. Formative evaluation is also referred to as assessment for learning with the purpose of ensuring learning. To conduct formative evaluation is beneficial to learning. If in the process of teaching, we already get to know that remedial teaching in some sub-skills is necessary, then we can 13