Employee Selection: References & Testing PDF

EMPLOYEE SELECTION: REFERENCES & TESTING PREDICTING PERFORMANCE PREDICTING FUTURE PERFORMANCE USING REFERENCES AND Even though references are commonly used to LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION screen and select employees, they have n...

EMPLOYEE SELECTION: REFERENCES & TESTING PREDICTING PERFORMANCE PREDICTING FUTURE PERFORMANCE USING REFERENCES AND Even though references are commonly used to LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION screen and select employees, they have not been successful in predicting future employee A reference check is the process of success. In fact, a meta analysis found that the confirming the accuracy of information average uncorrected validity coefficient for provided by an applicant. references/letters of recommendation and performance is only.18, with a corrected A reference is the expression of an opinion, validity of.29. either orally or through a written Validity coefficient— The correlation checklist, regarding an applicant’s ability, between scores on a selection method (e.g., previous performance, work habits, interview, cognitive ability test) and a measure character, or potential for future success. of job performance (e.g., supervisor rating, absenteeism). A letter of recommendation is a letter Corrected validity—A term usually found expressing an opinion regarding an with metaanalysis, referring to a correlation applicant’s ability, previous coefficient that has been corrected for performance, work habits, character, or predictor and criterion reliability and for range potential for future success. restriction. Leniency—Research is clear that most REASONS FOR USING REFERENCES letters of recommendation are positive: AND RECOMMENDATION Fewer than 1% of references rate applicants as below average or poor. But CONFIRMING DETAILS ON A RESUME keep in mind that applicants choose their own references! Résumé fraud—lying on their résumés about what experience or education they actually Research has shown that coworkers are willing have. to say negative things about unsatisfactory employees. CHECKING FOR DISCIPLINE PROBLEMS - Although coworkers are willing to say negative things about unsatisfactory Negligent hiring—A situation in which an employees, confidentiality concerns employee with a previous criminal record can hold them back. By law, students commits a crime as part of his/her have a right to see their reference employment. letters. - People providing references tend to be DISCOVERING NEW INFORMATION less lenient when an applicant waives ABOUT THE APPLICANT his right to see a reference letter. - A third cause of leniency stems from Former employers and professors can provide the fear of legal ramifications. A information about an applicant’s work habits, person providing references can be character, personality, and skills. charged with defamation of character  (slander if the reference is oral, libel if A meta-analysis by Ng and Feldman (2009) written) if the content of the reference found that better educated employees had is both untrue and made with higher performance, were more likely to malicious intent. engage in organizational citizenship behaviors, - Conditional privilege, which means less likely to be absent, and less likely to that they have the right to express their engage in on-the-job substance abuse than opinion provided they believe what were employees with lower levels of they say is true and have reasonable education. grounds for this belief PREDICTING PERFORMANCE Negligent reference—An organization’s USING APPLICANT KNOWLEDGE failure to meet its legal duty to supply relevant information to a prospective Job knowledge tests are designed to measure employer about a former employee’s how much a person knows about a job. potential for legal trouble. Job knowledge test A test that measures the amount of job-related knowledge an applicant Knowledge of the Applicant—A second possesses. problem with letters of recommendation is - For example, applicants for a that the person writing the letter often does bartender position might be asked how not know the applicant well, has not to make a martini or a White Russian, observed all aspects of an applicant’s and applicants for an HR position behavior, or both. might be asked how to conduct a job analysis. Reliability—The extent to which a score from a test or from an evaluation is consistent and COGNITIVE ABILITY free from error. Cognitive ability includes such dimensions as oral and written comprehension, oral and Extraneous Factors—The fourth problem written expression, numerical facility, with letters of recommendation concerns originality, memorization, reasoning extraneous factors that affect their writing (mathematical, deductive, inductive), and and evaluation. general learning. Cognitive ability is important for professional, clerical, and supervisory jobs, Ethical Issues including such occupations as supervisor, 3 Ethical Guidelines that reference providers accountant, and secretary. should follow: 1. Explicitly state your relationship with Cognitive ability test—Tests designed to the person you are recommending measure the level of intelligence or the amount 2. Be honest in providing details of knowledge possessed by an applicant. 3. Let the applicant see your reference before sending it, and give him the Cognitive ability tests are commonly used chance to decline to use it because they are excellent predictors of PREDICTING PERFORMANCE employee performance in the United States USING APPLICANT TRAINING and in Europe. AND EDUCATION Commonly Used Cognitive Ability Tests For many jobs, it is common that applicants Wonderlic Personnel Test—The short must have a minimum level of education or amount of time (12 minutes) necessary to take training to be considered. the test, as well as the fact that it can be administered in a group setting, makes it 9 Basic Physical Abilities (Fleishman & popular. Reilly, 1992) Other popular cognitive tests are the Miller Analogies Test, the Quick Test, and Raven 1. dynamic strength (strength requiring Progressive Matrices. repetitions) A potential breakthrough in cognitive ability 2. trunk strength (stooping or bending tests is the Siena Reasoning Test (SRT). The over) developers of this test theorized that the large 3. explosive strength (jumping or race differences in scores on traditional throwing objects) cognitive ability tests were due to the 4. static strength (strength not requiring knowledge needed to understand the questions repetitions) rather than the actual ability to learn or process 5. dynamic flexibility (speed of bending, information (intelligence) stretching, twisting) 6. extent flexibility (degree of bending, PERCEPTUAL ABILITY stretching, twisting) 7. gross body equilibrium (balance) Perceptual ability consists of vision (near, far, 8. gross body coordination (coordination night, peripheral), color discrimination, depth when body is in motion) perception, glare sensitivity, speech (clarity, 9. stamina (ability to exert effort over recognition), and hearing (sensitivity, auditory long periods of time) attention, sound localization). PREDICTING PERFORMANCE Perceptual ability Measure of facility with USING APPLICANT SKILL such processes as spatial relations and form perception Some selection techniques measure the extent to which an applicant already has a PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY job-related skill. The two most common methods for doing this are the work sample Psychomotor ability includes finger dexterity, and the assessment center manual dexterity, control precision, multilimb coordination, response control, reaction time, WORK SAMPLES arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger speed, and speed-of-limb. With a work sample, the applicant performs actual job-related tasks. For example, an Psychomotor abilities are useful for such jobs applicant for a job as automotive mechanic as carpenter, police officer, sewing-machine might be asked to fix a torn fan belt. operator, post office clerk, and truck driver Work samples are excellent selection tools for PHYSICAL ABILITY several reasons. First, because they are directly related to job tasks, they have excellent Physical ability tests are often used for jobs content validity. Second, scores from work that require physical strength and stamina, samples tend to predict actual work such as police officer, firefighter, and performance and thus have excellent criterion lifeguard. Physical ability is measured in one validity. of two ways: job simulations and physical agility tests. Third, because job applicants are able to see the connection between the job sample and the work performed on the job, the samples have excellent face validity and thus are challenged Business game An exercise, usually found in less often in civil service appeals or in court assessment centers, that is designed to cases. simulate the business and marketing activities that take place in an organization called. Finally, work samples have lower racial differences in test scores than do written Leaderless group discussion In this exercise, cognitive ability tests. applicants meet in small groups and are given a job-related problem to solve or a job-related The main reason for not using work samples is issue to discuss that they can be expensive to both construct and administer. For this reason, work samples PREDICTING PERFORMANCE are best used for well-paying jobs for which USING PRIOR EXPERIENCE many employees will be hired Applicant experience is typically ASSESSMENT CENTERS measured in one of four ways: experience ratings of application / An assessment center is a selection technique résumé information, biodata, reference characterized by the use of multiple checks, and interviews. assessment methods that allow multiple assessors to actually observe applicants EXPERIENCE RATINGS perform simulated job tasks. The basis for experience ratings is the idea that The assessment center activities must be based past experience will predict future experience. on the results of a thorough job analysis. In giving credit for experience, one must Multiple assessment techniques must be used consider the amount of experience, the level of and the assessments must provide information performance demonstrated during the previous about the applicant that was determined as experience, and how related the experience is being important in the job analysis. to the current job. That is, experience by itself is not enough In-basket technique An assessment center exercise designed to simulate the types of Biodata is a selection method that considers information that daily come across a an applicant’s life, school, military, manager’s or employee’s desk in order to community, and work experience. observe the applicant’s responses to such information PERSONALITY INVENTORIES Simulation An exercise designed to place an Personality inventories are becoming applicant in a situation that is similar to the increasingly popular as an employee selection one that will be encountered on the job. method, in part because they predict performance better than was once thought, and Work sample A method of selecting in part because they result in less adverse employees in which an applicant is asked to impact than do ability tests. perform samples of actual job-related tasks. TESTS OF NORMAL PERSONALITY Although there are hundreds of personality inventories that measure hundreds of traits, there is general agreement that most personality traits can be placed into one of five broad personality dimensions. Popularly Though used extensively by clinical known as the “Big Five” or the five-factor psychologists, these tests are seldom used by model, these dimensions are I/O psychologists except in the selection of - openness to experience (bright, law enforcement officers. inquisitive); - conscientiousness (reliable, Tests of psychopathology are generally dependable); scored in one of two ways: objectively or - extraversion (outgoing, friendly); projectively. - agreeableness (works well with others, a team player); and Projective tests provide the respondent with - emotional stability (not anxious, unstructured tasks such as describing ink blots tense). and drawing pictures. Common tests in this category also include the Rorschach Inkblot Examples of common measures of normal Test and the Thematic Apperception Test personality used in employee selection include (TAT). Because projective tests are of the Hogan Personality Inventory, the questionable reliability and validity. California Psychological Inventory, the NEO-PI (Neuroticism Extraversion Projective tests A subjective test in which a Openness Personality Inventory), and the subject is asked to perform relatively 16PF unstructured tasks, such as drawing pictures, and in which a psychologist analyzes his or her In recent years, there has been considerable responses interest in investigating the relationship between certain “aberrant” personality types Rorschach Inkblot Test A projective and employee behavior. Aberrant personality personality test. types are “peculiarities that do not necessarily lead to a clinically impaired function (like Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) A personality disorders), but that may affect projective personality test in which test-takers daily functioning (at work) in such ways that are shown pictures and asked to tell stories. It they deserve further attention. Three such is designed to measure various need levels. aberrant types, referred to as the “Dark Triad,” are Machiavellianism, narcissism, Objective tests are structured so that the and psychopathy. Employees with these traits respondent is limited to a few answers that will tend to be manipulative, self-centered, and be scored by standardized keys. By far the lack concern for the wellbeing of others. most popular and heavily studied test of this type is the MMPI-2. Antisocial and narcissistic personalities have actually been positively linked to certain aspects of career success Objective tests A type of personality test that TESTS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY is structured to limit the respondent to a few answers that will be scored by standardized Tests of psychopathology (abnormal keys behavior) determine whether individuals have serious psychological problems such as depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.  INTEREST INVENTORIES The law did, however, allow the use of paper- As the name implies, these tests are designed and-pencil integrity tests, which are either (1) to tap vocational interests. The most overt or (2) personality-based. commonly used interest inventory is the Strong Interest Inventory (SII), which asks Overt integrity tests are based on the individuals to indicate whether they like or premise that a person’s attitudes about theft dislike 325 items such as bargaining, repairing as well as his previous theft behavior will electrical wiring, and taking responsibility. accurately predict his future honesty. Interest inventory A psychological test Personality-based integrity tests are more designed to identify vocational areas in which general in that they tap a variety of an individual might be interested. personality traits (e.g., conscientiousness, risk taking) thought to be related to a wide Strong Interest Inventory (SII) A popular range of counterproductive behavior such as interest inventory used to help people theft, absenteeism, and violence. choose careers. Overt integrity test A type of honesty test Interest inventories are useful in vocational that asks questions about applicants’ counseling (helping people find the careers for attitudes toward theft and their previous which they are best suited). theft history. Vocational counseling The process of helping Personality-based integrity test A type of an individual choose and prepare for the most honesty test that measures personality traits suitable career thought to be related to antisocial behavior. INTEGRITY TESTS CONDITIONAL REASONING TESTS Integrity tests (also called honesty tests) tell Conditional reasoning tests were initially an employer the probability that an applicant developed by James (1998) to reduce these would steal money or merchandise. inaccurate responses and get a more accurate picture of a person’s tendency to Polygraph Protection Act making general engage in aggressive or counterproductive use of electronic integrity tests, such as the behavior. polygraph and the voice stress analyzer, illegal for employee selection purposes except in a Conditional reasoning test Test designed to few situations involving law enforcement reduce faking by asking test-takers to select agencies and national security. the reason that best explains a statement. Polygraph An electronic test intended to CREDIT HISTORY determine honesty by measuring an individual’s physiological changes after being 47% of employers conduct credit checks for at asked questions. least some jobs. Voice stress analyzer An electronic test to These credit checks are conducted for two determine honesty by measuring an reasons: individual’s voice changes after being asked questions (1) Employers believe that people who owe PSYCHOLOGICAL EXAMS money might be more likely to steal or accept bribes, and Psychological exams are commonly used for (2) employees with good credit are more jobs related to public safety, such as law responsible and conscientious and thus will be enforcement, nuclear power, and better employees transportation. These exams are administered after a conditional job offer, and if an applicant GRAPHOLOGY fails, the offer is withdrawn. The exams typically include an interview with a clinical An interesting method to select employees is psychologist, a review of the applicant’s life handwriting analysis, or graphology. history, and one or more psychological tests. These exams are not intended to predict job PREDICTING PERFORMANCE performance but are instead used to assess LIMITATIONS DUE TO MEDICAL whether the applicant might pose a risk to AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS themselves or others. DRUG TESTING MEDICAL EXAMS Drug testing in the workplace is widely used In these exams, the physician is given a copy but controversial. It is driven by concerns over of the job description and asked to determine if safety, as 8.2% of employees report recent there are any medical conditions that will keep drug use, which is linked to increased the employee from safely performing the job. absenteeism, health-care costs, accidents, and turnover. Research supports these concerns, COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES showing that drug users are more likely to miss work, use health benefits, be fired or quit, VALIDITY and have more workplace accidents. Unstructured interview, education, interest Drug testing generally occurs in two stages. inventories, and some personality traits are not First, an initial test screens a sample (urine, good predictors of future employee saliva, or hair) for drugs. Instant screening is performance for most jobs. possible for urine or saliva, while hair samples require lab testing. If the initial test is positive, It is also clear that ability, work samples, a second test by a medical review officer biodata, and structured interviews do a fairly (MRO) verifies the results. good job of predicting future employee performance Three main testing methods are used: (1) testing all employees or random employees at LEGAL ISSUES set times, (2) testing all or random employees at unpredictable times, and (3) testing after Employee selection methods can face legal incidents like accidents or disciplinary actions. challenges, especially if they lead to adverse Random testing (the second method) is the impact, invade privacy, or seem unrelated to most effective for deterrence, while the job (lack face validity). Cognitive ability post-incident testing (the third method) is the tests and GPA scores tend to have the highest most legally defensible. rates of adverse impact, while integrity tests, references, and personality assessments have the lowest. In terms of face validity, applicants generally perceive interviews, work samples, and resumes as the most fair and job-related, whereas they see graphology, integrity tests, and personality tests as less relevant and fair. REJECTING APPLICANTS When rejecting job applicants, companies should communicate thoughtfully, as these individuals may be future customers or applicants for other positions. Rejection letters vary in content but may include a personal address, appreciation for applying, a compliment on qualifications, mention of other qualified applicants, information on the hired candidate, best wishes, or a note that the resume will be kept on file. Though there is no definitive research on the best format, some guidelines can improve responses. It’s important to send a letter or email, avoid immediate rejection notices, personalize the letter, and honestly convey feedback. Mentioning the successful candidate can boost satisfaction, though a contact person’s name should be excluded.