8 HAPL12M - Skeletal System PDF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY HAPL12M  SKELETAL SYSTEM R.A. Carnate, RN SKELETAL SYSTEM Parts of the Skeletal System: I. Bones II. Joints III. Cartilages IV. Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=bone to muscle) SKELETAL SYSTEM Divided into two divisions: 1. Axia...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY HAPL12M  SKELETAL SYSTEM R.A. Carnate, RN SKELETAL SYSTEM Parts of the Skeletal System: I. Bones II. Joints III. Cartilages IV. Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=bone to muscle) SKELETAL SYSTEM Divided into two divisions: 1. Axial Skeleton 2. Appendicular Skeleton Total of 206 Different bones SKELETAL SYSTEM Functions of Bones ✓SUPPORT OF THE BODY ✓PROTECTION OF SOFT ORGANS ✓MOVEMENT DUE TO ATTACHED SKELETAL MUSCLES ✓STORAGE OF MINERALS AND FATS ✓BLOOD CELL FORMATION SKELETAL SYSTEM Axial skeleton oSupports and protects organs of head, neck and trunk Skull (cranium and facial bones) Hyoid bone (anchors tongue and muscles associated with swallowing) Vertebral column (vertebrae and disks) Bony thorax (ribs and sternum) SKELETAL SYSTEM Appendicular Skeleton oIncludes bones of limbs and bones that anchor them to the axial skeleton Pectoral Girdle (Clavicles and scapulae) Upper Limbs (arms) Pelvic Girdle (Sacrum, coccyx) Lower limbs (legs) SKELETAL SYSTEM Axial Appendicular ▪22 Bones in skull ▪4 in pectoral girdle ▪6 in middle ears ▪60 in upper limbs ▪1 hyoid bone ▪60 in lower limbs ▪26 in vertebral column ▪2 in pelvic girdle ▪25 in thoracic cage Total of 206 Different bones SKELETAL SYSTEM The Axial Skeleton oForms the longitudinal part of the body oDivided into 3 parts i. Skull ii. Vertebral column iii. Bony thorax SKELETAL SYSTEM The Axial Skeleton: The Skull 8 Cranial Bones (flat bones – immovable joints which protects brain 14 Facial Bones The Axial Skeleton: The Skull FRONTAL BONE The Axial Skeleton: The Skull PARIETAL BONE  The Axial Skeleton: The Skull TEMPORAL BONE  The Axial Skeleton: The Skull OCCIPITAL BONE  The Axial Skeleton: The Skull SPHENOID BONE The Axial Skeleton: The Skull ETHMOID BONE Nasal Bones Maxilla Zygomatic Mandible Lacrimal Palatine Inferior Nasal Concha Vomer 6 ear bones Hyoid bone Vertebral column 7 cervical vertebrae 12 Thoracic 5 Lumbar 1 Sacrum (5 fused) 1 Coccyx (4 Fused) Vertebrae vary in size and morphology Vertebral column Atlas – c1 the most superior (first) cervical vertebrae of the spine. It is named for the ATLAS of Greek mythology, because it supports the globe of the head. Gives the head the ability to nod. Axis – c2 the second cervical vertebra gives the head the ability to rotate. Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Spine Sacrum Coccyx Thoracic Cage Ribs Thoracic vertebrae Sternum Costal Cartilages True ribs are directly attached to the sternum (first 7 pairs) 3 False ribs are joined to the 7th rib 2 pairs of floating ribs RIBS  The costal cartilages are bars of hyaline cartilage that serve to prolong the ribs forward and contribute to the elasticity of the walls of the thorax. Costal cartilage is only found at the anterior ends of the ribs, providing medial extension.  The sternum or breastbone is a long flat bone located in the center of the chest. It connects to the ribs via cartilage and forms the front of the rib cage, thus helping to protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels from injury. Shaped roughly like a necktie, it is one of the largest and longest flat bones of the body. Its three regions are the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process.The word "sternum" originates from the Greek στέρνον, meaning "chest". Xyphoid process Improperly performed chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation can cause the xiphoid process to snap off, driving it into the liver which can cause a fatal hemorrhage. APPENDICULAR SKELETON The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the upper limbs (which function to grasp and manipulate objects) and the lower limbs (which permit locomotion). It also includes the pectoral girdle, or shoulder girdle, that attaches the upper limbs to the body, and the pelvic girdle that attaches the lower limbs to the body THE PECTORAL GIRDLE The pectoral girdle bones provide the points of attachment of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. The human pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle (or collarbone) in the anterior, and the scapula (or shoulder blades) in the posterior THE PECTORAL GIRDLE  The clavicles are S-shaped bones that position the arms on the body. The clavicles lie horizontally across the front of the thorax (chest) just above the first rib. These bones are fairly fragile and are susceptible to fractures. For example, a fall with the arms outstretched causes the force to be transmitted to the clavicles, which can break if the force is excessive. The clavicle articulates with the sternum and the scapula.  The scapulae are flat, triangular bones that are located at the back of the pectoral girdle. They support the muscles crossing the shoulder joint. A ridge, called the spine, runs across the back of the scapula and can easily be felt through the skin The spine of the scapula is a good example of a bony protrusion that facilitates a broad area of attachment for muscles to bone. The Upper Limb The upper limb contains 30 bones in three regions: the arm (shoulder to elbow), the forearm (ulna and radius), and the wrist and hand  The humerus is the largest and longest bone of the upper limb and the only bone of the arm. It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder and with the forearm at the elbow.  The forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist and consists of two bones: the ulna and the radius. The radius is located along the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm and articulates with the humerus at the elbow. The ulna is located on the medial aspect (pinky-finger side) of the forearm. It is longer than the radius. The ulna articulates with the humerus at the elbow.  The radius and ulna also articulate with the carpal bones and with each other, which in vertebrates enables a variable degree of rotation of the carpus with respect to the long axis of the limb. The hand includes the eight bones of the carpus (wrist), the five bones of the metacarpus(palm), and the 14 bones of the phalanges(digits). Each digit consists of three phalanges, except for the thumb, when present, which has only two. The Pelvic Girdle The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton. Because it is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and for locomotion, the pelvic girdle is securely attached to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments. It also has deep sockets with robust ligaments to securely attach the femur to the body. The pelvic girdle is further strengthened by two large hip bones.  In adults, the hip bones, or coxal bones, are formed by the fusion of three pairs of bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvis joins together in the anterior of the body at a joint called the pubic symphysis and with the bones of the sacrum at the posterior of the body.  The female pelvis is slightly different from the male pelvis. Over generations of evolution, females with a wider pubic angle and larger diameter pelvic canal reproduced more successfully. Therefore, their offspring also had pelvic anatomy that enabled successful childbirth. The Lower Limb The lower limb consists of the thigh, the leg, and the foot. The bones of the lower limb are the femur (thigh bone), patella (kneecap), tibia and fibula (bones of the leg), tarsals (bones of the ankle), and metatarsals and phalanges (bones of the foot)  The femur, or thighbone, is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body. The femur and pelvis form the hip joint at the proximal end. At the distal end, the femur, tibia, and patella form the knee joint.  The bones of the lower limbs are thicker and stronger than the bones of the upper limbs because of the need to support the entire weight of the body and the resulting forces from locomotion. In addition to evolutionary fitness, the bones of an individual will respond to forces exerted upon them.  The patella, or kneecap, is a triangular bone that lies anterior to the knee joint. The patella is embedded in the tendon of the femoral extensors (quadriceps). It improves knee extension by reducing friction.  The tibia, or shinbone, is a large bone of the leg that is located directly below the knee. The tibia articulates with the femur at its proximal end, with the fibula and the tarsal bones at its distal end. It is the second largest bone in the human body and is responsible for transmitting the weight of the body from the femur to the foot.  The fibula, or calf bone, parallels and articulates with the tibia. It does not articulate with the femur and does not bear weight. The fibula acts as a site for muscle attachment and forms the lateral part of the ankle joint.  The tarsals are the seven bones of the ankle. The ankle transmits the weight of the body from the tibia and the fibula to the foot.  The metatarsals are the five bones of the foot. The phalanges are the 14 bones of the toes. Each toe consists of three phalanges, except for the big toe that has only two 2 types of bone tissue Compact bone Spongy bone Both types of tissue contain living cells that help make repair if a bone is injured or broken Types of bone cells Osteocytes Mature bone cells Osteoblasts Bone-forming cells Osteoclasts Bone-destroying cells Break down bone matrix for remodelling and release calcium Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts 5 basic shapes Bones are classified by their shape Long Bones I.e. Femur Short Bones I.e. Wrist, ankle bones Flat Bones I.e.Skull or scapula Irregular bones I.e.Vertebrae Sesamoid bones I.e. Patella Classification of Bones Long Bones Typically longer than wide Have a shaft with heads at both ends Contain mostly compact bone Exampes: Femur, Humerus Structures of a Long Bone Periosteum Outside covering of the diaphysis Fibrous connective tissue membrane Sharpey’s fibers Secure periosteum to underlying bone Arteries Supply bone cells with nutrients Classification of Bones Short Bones Generally cube-shape Contain mostly spongy bone Exampes: Carpals, Tarsals Classification of Bones Flat Bones Thin and flattened Usually Curved Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone Exampes: Skull, ribs, sternum Classification of Bones Irregular Bones Irregular Shape Do not fit other bone classification categories Example: Vertebrae and hip Changes in the Human Skeleton In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone Cartilage remains in isolated areas Bridge of the nose Parts of ribs Joints  Cartilage Cartilage is an important structural component of the body. It is a firm tissue but is softer and much more flexible than bone. Cartilage is a connective tissue found in many areas of the body including: Joints between bones e.g. the elbows, knees and ankles Ends of the ribs Between the vertebrae in the spine Ears and nose Bronchial tubes or airways Types of Cartilage Hyaline cartilage This is a low-friction, wear-resistant tissue present within joints that is designed to bear and distribute weight. It is a strong, rubbery, flexible tissue but has a poor regenerative capacity. Elastic cartilage Elastic cartilage is more flexible that hyaline cartilage and is present in the ear, larynx and epiglottis. Types of Cartilage Fibro Cartilage Fibro Cartilage is a tough and inflexible form of cartilage found in the knee and between vertebrae. Bone Growth Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood New cartilage is continuously formed Older cartilage becomes ossified Cartilage is broken down Bone replaces cartilage Bone growth Bone Fractures A break in a bone Types of bone fractures Closed (simple fracture) – break that does not penetrate the skin Open (compound fracture) – Broken bone penetrates through the skin Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization Realignment of the bone Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture JOINTS A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self- lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements.  Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally. Sutures of the skull Function of the paranasal sinuses 1. Act as resonators of voice 2. Reduce weight of the skull 3. Help in formation of facial characteristics  JOINTS Joints are the areas where 2 or more bones meet. Most joints are mobile, allowing the bones to move. Joints consist of the following: Cartilage. This is a type of tissue that covers the surface of a bone at a joint. Cartilage helps reduce the friction of movement within a joint. Synovial membrane. A tissue called the synovial membrane lines the joint and seals it into a joint capsule. The synovial membrane secretes a clear, sticky fluid (synovial fluid) around the joint to lubricate it.  Ligaments. Strong ligaments (tough, elastic bands of connective tissue) surround the joint to give support and limit the joint's movement. Ligaments connect bones together. Tendons. Tendons (another type of tough connective tissue) on each side of a joint attach to muscles that control movement of the joint. Tendons connect muscles to bones. Bursas. Fluid-filled sacs, called bursas, between bones, ligaments, or other nearby structures. They help cushion the friction in a joint.  Synovial fluid. A clear, sticky fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. Meniscus. This is a curved part of cartilage in the knees and other joints. JOINTS Fibrous – joints connect bones without allowing any movement. The bones of your skull and pelvis are held together by fibrous joints Cartilaginous – are joints in which the bones are attached by cartilage. These joints allow for only a little movement, such as in the spine or ribs.  FIBROUS Cartilaginous JOINTS Synovial – allow for much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones. Bursa sacks contain the synovial fluid. The synovial joint 6 types of Synovial Joints Ball & Socket Saddle HINGE Pivot Plane Ellipsoid HINGE Hinge Hinge joints. Hinge joints, such as in the fingers, knees, elbows, and toes, allow only bending and straightening movements. HINGE joint (Elbow) PIVOT Joint Pivot Pivot joints. Pivot joints, such as the neck joints, allow limited rotating movements. Pivot joint at the radial – ulnar bones BALL & SOCKET JOINT  Ball-and-socket joints. Ball-and-socket joints, such as the shoulder and hip joints, allow backward, forward, sideways, and rotating movements. Shoulder joint Ellipsoid Joint  Ellipsoidal joints. Ellipsoidal joints, such as the wrist joint, allow all types of movement except pivotal movements. Saddle joint Plane  Diseases and Conditions of the Skeletal System Arthritis Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. It can affect one joint or multiple joints. There are more than 100 different types of arthritis, with different causes and treatment methods. Two of the most common types are osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA).  The symptoms of arthritis usually develop over time, but they may also appear suddenly. Arthritis is most commonly seen in adults over the age of 65, but it can also develop in children, teens, and younger adults. Arthritis is more common in women than men and in people who are overweight. Bursitis Inflammation of the Bursa sac Can become inflamed from injury or infection Localized pain or swelling Tendonitis Inflammation of the tendon Movement becomes painful Most common cause of tendonitis is overuse.  Ligaments appear as crisscross bands that attach bone to bone and help stabilize joints. For example, the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) attaches the thighbone to the shinbone, stabilizing the knee joint. Tendons, located at each end of a muscle, attach muscle to bone. Tendons are found throughout the body, from the head and neck all the way down to the feet. The Achilles tendon is the largest tendon in the body. It attaches the calf muscle to the heel bone. The rotator cuff tendons help your shoulder rotate forward and backward. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Swelling or change in position of the tissue within the carpal tunnel squeezes and irritates the median nerve. Causes tingling and numbness of the thumb, index, and the middle fingers. Osteoporosis Means “Porous Bones.” Bones have lost minerals (especially calcium) making them weak, brittle, and susceptible to fractures Most common places where fractures occur are the back, hips, and wrists. Scoliosis Abnormal curvature of the spine. One or more abnormal More girls than boys have severe scoliosis. Kyphosis Spine may develop a hump. Can occur as a result of developmental problems or degenerative diseases. Lordosis A curvature of the vertebrae in the lower back area, giving a “swayback” appearance. Rickets Softening and weakening of bones in children Usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency. Gout Results from an overload of uric acid in the body. Leads to the formation of urate crystals that deposit in the joints. Crystals in the joints causes recurring attacks of joint inflammation (arthritis) Chronic gout may cause joint destruction, decreased kidney function, and kidney stones. Acromegaly Occurs when the body produces too much of the hormones that control growth. Tissues grow larger than normal. Excessive growth can cause serious disease and even premature death. Spina Bifida Birth defect that involves the incomplete development of the spinal cord or its coverings. Spina Bifida literally means “split” or “open” spine. The condition usually is detected before a baby is born and treated right away.  Talipes Equinovarus “clubfoot” Deformity of the whole foot that is present at birth. The child is born with the foot pointing down and twisted inwards at the ankle. Sarcoma Osteosarcoma Most common type of bone cancer. Most commonly found in children and adolescents. Myeloma Cancer in which abnormal cells collect in the bone marrow and form tumors. Leukemia Cancer of the blood cells Starts in the bone marrow where blood cells are The bone marrow starts to make a lot of abnormal white blood cells, called leukemia cells. Leukemia cells don’t do the work of normal WBC’s and they don’t stop growing when they should.