DPSY523 Personality Theories PDF

Course D P S Y 5 2 3 Course Title PERSONALITY THEORIES Code Weightages CA ETE (TH)...

Course D P S Y 5 2 3 Course Title PERSONALITY THEORIES Code Weightages CA ETE (TH) 30 70 Course Content: Sr. No. Content Unit 1 The study of personality: definitions, nature, types of assessment, research in personality Unit 2 Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud):Introduction to Psychodynamic Theories of Personality, Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud Unit 3 Contemporary Freudians: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Erikson. Unit 4 Neo Freudians: Eric Fromm, Horney, Sullivan, Unit 5 Type approaches: William Sheldon, Ernst Kretschmer, Friedman & Rosenman , and MBTI Unit 6 Trait approaches: Raymond Cattell, Gordon Allport, Hans Eysenck, Costa and McCrae. Unit 7 Humanistic: Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers Unit 8 Cognitive Approaches: Rollo May, George Kelly, Rotter and Mischel Unit 9 Social Learning Approaches:B.F. Skinner, Miller and Dollard, Albert Bandura Unit 10 Facets of personality: Julian Rotter's locus of control, Marvin Zuckerman's sensation, Martin E.P. Seligman Unit 11 Stress, Adjustment and Health differences: disease-prone personalities, personality and coronary-proneness, human termites, self-healing personality. Unit 12 Cultural and Ethnic differences: group influence, culture effects, socioeconomic influence, language, culture and testing. Unit 13 Personality in Perspective: The genetic factor, Environmental factor, Developmental factor, Learning factor, Conscious and Unconscious factors. Unit 14 Indian Perspective: Theory of self in Indian Thought, types of personality, Bhagavad Gita , Ayurveda & Buddhism Readings: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY by HALL, C.S AND LINDZEY, G AND CAMPBELL, JOHN, B, WILEY, 4th Edition (2014). Additional Readings: 1. PERSONALITY THEORIES by DUANE P. SCHULTZ, SYDNEY ELLEN SCHULTZ 1 st Edition, (2012), CENGAGE LEARNING 8  Unit 1: The Study of Personality UNIT 01: The Study of Personality CONTENTS Objectives Introduction 1.1 Definitions 1.2 Nature 1.3 Foundations of Personality 1.4 Types of Assessment 1.4.1. Objective Tests 1.4.2 Projective Measures 1.5. Research in Personality 1.6 Summary 1.7. Key Notes 1.8 Self-Assessment 1.9 Review Questions Further Readings Objectives  Provide an overview of the concept of personality  Provide an overview of the controversies in the field of personality  Introduce some of the methods used to measure or evaluate personality  Describe different types of personality tests, including the Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory and common projective tests Introduction To explore the answers of different dimensions of individual differences, their dynamics, nature and extent of variability, personality psychology emerges. This particular segment will explore an analytical explanation of different personality theories -among them we may find certain theories are on the house with others & some are antithetical to each other. 1.1 Definitions The basic question comes to our mind, that how we will define Personality and the researchers are of inquisition of the impact of personality on individual’s responses & their makeup. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to the literal meaning of personality. Personality is the comprehensive aggregate of our responses and attitudes. It is the one which denotes an unique style of each individual of this universe. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1 DPSY523: Personality Theories It is the most characteristic nature, by which a person thinks, feel, & act throughout his life. It is differing from character, which includes value judgment of an individual’s morality, it is also not be equated with temperament, the in-born qualities of a person-like irritation and adjustability. Both these two are important segment of personality. Personality gives distinctiveness and uniqueness to an individual’s behavior which arises from a shape of relatively stable and distinct feature – traits have typically distinct feature which gives an impact on our behavior, these features particularly separate us from other individuals. For example, one may express himself as admiring or true person- which are the examples of personality qualities. When it is said that you are admiring, it means in every occasion you will be admired, like in a day-off, with someone you are not well in touch or in tension you can behave out of your characteristics. That is why, these characteristics are being measured on a scale. "Personality is the organization of characteristics behavioural traits which serve to describe an individual."- Garrett 1975. “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”- R.B. Cattell 1950 "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustment to his environment."- Allport "Personality is the entire mental organization of a human being at any stage of his development."- Warren Let’s take our attention to the word trait; this word needs to be known in dept when it comes to personality. Traits are unique characteristics that influence our behavior; these characteristics typically separate us apart from other people. 1.2 Nature 1. Every individual is distinctive in personality. In consideration of inner & outer qualities, personality is distinctive and special to each one of us. Other persons cannot copy the same qualities in their expression in exactly the same manner. 2. Every person has certain stable feelings & also certain enduring characteristics & virtues. So, it has been referred to as Personality is the comprehensive aggregate of long-lasting characteristics which express themselves as social behavior, which make an unique adjustment with the surroundings. 3. It has been reflected that personality has the potential to change the dynamics of the individual within the environmental situation. It changes by the process of learning new stimuli, & all the characteristics we are not acquiring all together. 4. Social exchange plays an important role in framing personality. When we interact with other people, in the process of interpersonal communication, we acquire certain chrematistics of others, which include in our personality. 5. Certain dynamic and social characteristics are combined together to give us a predisposition to act in a certain way, which in turn, builds our personality. In this way one person’s behavior differs from another & personality becomes unique for an individual. Personality represents a unique organization of persistent dynamic and social predisposition: In personality various qualities are not put together. They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but a result of organization which may be different from man to man. The behaviour of a person directed to one particular individual may differ from the behaviour of another person. That is why; we put the condition of suitable environment. This suitability is concerned with individual specificity. 2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 1: The Study of Personality 1.3 Foundations of Personality From different terminology, it may be framed that personality is rooted on the following structures. These are (i), Physiological structure of the organism, (ii) Psychic structure of the organism and (iii) Social and cultural structure. All these three formulates build the basis of Personality.These structures contribute to the formation of personality. Individual is born with certain physical and psychological traits or structures. The physiological and psychological traits react to the social and cultural atmosphere. Consequently, the personality is made up. Various structures that form the personality are discussed below. 1. Physiological structure: This component has the major emphasis on the personality development. It starts from the conception. Heredity and environmental factors contribute together for building personality. Heredity influences intellectual & psychological components. Heredity components can only be effective after proper expression through cultural contexts are being exposed. In cultural characteristics, it can be transmitted from one generation to another. Heredity gives the core material on which the structure of personality can be made. 2. Psychic Structure of the Personality: It is considered to be (a) attitudes (b) traits, (c) sentiments (d) feelings and emotions (e) values and ideals are the psychic structure of personality. Attitudes emphasize on mental make-up & later on bodily characteristics. Traits are the inherited potentials of a person. Individual’s behavior is greatly moved by emotions and sentiments. Emotions are transients but sentiments are long lasting. Feelings are also short-lived. From feelings, emotions are made. Personality is also influenced by values and ideas. It has been said that all human behaviors are far and more controlled by values and ideas. 3. Social and Cultural Structure: Individual is born and brought up in a society which has a definite culture of its own. Cultural influences are very much observed in our attitudes. Every culture has its own sub-culture, which has also an impact on personality. The child imitates the pattern of behavior of his parents. Children brought up in the same family, may have different personality, as because they come into contact with different persons in the society which has an important effect on moulding their personality. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 3 DPSY523: Personality Theories 1.4 Types of Assessment Different tests for assessing personality has been framed which are being used in research purpose, forensic setting and also in clinical diagnosing. These assessment can estimate the personality style of the individual. 1.4.1. Objective Tests This type of test is not influenced by the examiner’s own judgement. It can be quantified by giving numerical values to the responses of the individuals. According to the norms, the responses can be scored & interpretation can be made. 4 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 1: The Study of Personality Self-report questionnaire is the simplest form of objective assessment of personality. Some of the more widely used personality self-report measures are the “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Neo Pi-R, MMPI/MMPI-2, 16 PF, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire”. 1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator This is an adoption of the famous contribution of Carl Jung’s theory of personality. For non-clinical population, in Western Countries, MBTI is a popular inventory. From the Jung’s Concept, MBTI assesses Personality on two dimensional four factors. These are Introversion- Extraversion, Sensing- Intuiting, Thinking-Feeling and Judging-Perceiving. 2. Neo Pi-R This personality assessment was framed to assess the personality of the individual by using Five- Factor model. Those are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness & neuroticism. 3. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) This is a paper-Pencil test. It was designed by S. Hataway in 1940s. It has 550 questions with yes/no type of responses. It was revised by many psychologists. It has two versions- MMPI-1 & MMPI-2. 4. 16 PF This questionnaire was framed by R. B. Cattell. It includes 16 personality factors. Which are placed in two dimensional way. Cattell has found those factors by factor analysis. He also mentioned that these are first order factors and along with he put forward 4 second order factors. After calculating the scores a person can get an idea of his personality through a graphical presentation. 5. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire It was framed by Eysenck. It has three dimensions Introversion, Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism. It has a distinct feature, that is it has lie scale. 1.4.2. Projective Measures Projective measures were framed on the principle of Freudian Ego -defense mechanism. In that Freud mentioned one defense that is projection. Individual’s trend is that he wants to project the repressed wishes to others. Based on this concept, Projective tests were framed. It is also because in questionnaire people try to fake responses. Projective tests are designed in such a way that the subject has to give his comments on some meaningful or meaningless pictures. The most widely used projective tests are Rorschach Ink Blot test, Thematic Apperception test. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 5 DPSY523: Personality Theories Perceptive Technique 1. The Rorschach Inkblot test- Hermann Rorschach developed this test during 1960s. It consists of 10 inkblots cards which assess a person’s personality characteristics and emotional functioning. This test is done in two stages, wherein, the first stage is the performance or free- association stage where the subject is asked to tell whatever they see in the card. The next stage is the enquiry, where the administrator takes a detailed response of the subject by asking what, how and on what basis the subject made the judgement. 2. The thematic apperception test- It was developed by Murray and Morgan in 1938. This test contains 30 cards with vague, ambiguous pictures of random people. The subjects are shown cards one at a time and are asked to describe the image on the card by making up a story; what let up to the situation, what is happening at the moment, what is going to happen and what the characters are thinking, etc. This test is particularly helpful in revealing a person’s underlying motives, concerns and the way they see the social world. 3. Sentence- completion test- This is a semi- projective test which has a series of incomplete sentences. Only the first half of the sentence is given, and the subject is asked to complete the sentence with whatever comes to their mind while reading the sentence. This test helps reflect the subject’s their attitudes, motivation and hidden conflicts. 4. Draw-a-man test- This can also be called as a projective personality test or a cognitive test. It was originally developed by Florence Goodenough. The Indian version of this test is given by Pramila Pathak. It majorly focuses on assessing the intelligence of children between ages 4-15. It is a simple test in which the subject is asked to draw a human figure on a sheet of paper using just pencil and the drawing is then evaluated by the administrator. The test can be used for various purposes- to assess the personality of the subject, to examine any hidden disorders and to measure intelligence of children. https://www.mentalhelp.net/psychological-testing/thematic-apperception-test/ 1.5 Research in Personality Researchers have been shown that trait concept has been taken into widest popularity in assessment of personality. For clinical psychology, TAT & Rorschach Ink Blot Test has got immense importance. Apart from those from non-clinical perspective, MBTI EPQ have got popularity for assessing personality. A greater trend has been found to eagerness of the individuals to know their 6 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 1: The Study of Personality personality status on those Tests. Personality assessment has now become more predominant in psychology. 1.6 Summary: Personality is an important concept in psychology. To know its nature and extent is very essential in today’s modern world, to know how a person differs from one another. In this context, it is also seen essential to measure personality. The heredity and environmental influences on personality is very distinct in characteristics. Cultural influences are also giving impetus to its nature. The dynamics of personality in that sense seemed to be relevant by different theorists in past and present world. It is very interesting to denote that personality has manifold importance in different branches of psychology. 1.7 Keywords: Personality, trait, openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism, MMPI, 16 PF, projective tests, objective tests, TAT, Rorschach test. 1.8 Self-Assessment 1. Who give R = f (P, S). A. Freud B. Cattell C. Jung D. Allport 2. Who among following give Cardinal traits? A. Freud B. Cattell C. Jung D. Allport 3. According to _______ “Personality is the totality of behaviour of an individual with a given tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations.” A. Cattell B. Jung C. Clarke D. Munn 4. Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) is related toCattell A. True B. False 5. In 1922 _____received his Ph.D degree from Harvard University under the direction of Herbert S. Langfeld. A. Munn B. Skinner C. Anna O D. Allport 6. Cardinal and Central traits are given byAllport A. True B. False 7. Pattern and Growth in Personality was written by. A. Allport B. Freud C. Both D. None 8. Jung divided personality into Extrovert&Introvert A. True B. False LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 7 DPSY523: Personality Theories 9. The term personality is derived from A. Greek word B. French word C. English word D. Latin word 10. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Carl Jung’s theory of personality A. True B. False 11. The Rorchach test consists of ten inkblots, which were created by __________. A. Allport B. Freud C. Herman Rorschach D. None 12. The concept of The Proprium or Self is given by____________. A. Freud B. Allport C. Wood worth D. Langfeld 13. The introvert personality is: A. Independent, avoiding others and hard worker. B. Practical. C. Losses follow up. D. None of the above. 14. Type B personality A. Seeks challenge. B. Relaxed. C. Prone to stress. D. None of the above 15. Roger’s defines the ________ as an organized, consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the ‘I’ or ‘me’. A. The self concept B. The work concept C. The team concept D. None of the above 01 02 03 04 05 B D B A D 06 07 08 09 10 A A A D A 8 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 1: The Study of Personality 11 12 13 14 15 C B A B A 1.9 Review Questions 1. Define personality. Discuss the nature of personality. 2. What are the different types of personality assessment? 3. Write a short note on Rorschach test. 4. Discuss TAT. 5. Define objective tests. 6. Explain 16PF. 7. Name five personality factors When JOY was young, Greg’s father was consistently promoted at work for his diligence. Greg saw this and learned to be a conscientious worker himself. This fact could most easily provide evidence for whose theory of personality? Further Readings Personality and Intellectual Competence. Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic and Adrian Furnham. LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2005 Mahwah, New Jersey London. Personality and Social Behavior - Frederick Rhodewalt. Personality As a Affect Processing System - Jack Block. Personality Assessment - Steven Smitth. Personality Identity and Character Explorations In Moral Psychology - Darcia Narvaez. Personality in Adulthood - Robert McCrae LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 9  Unit 2: Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud) UNIT 02: Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud) CONTENTS Objectives Introduction 2.1. Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud 2.1.1. Main Concepts of Psychoanalytical Theory 2.1.2. The Levels of Personality 2.1.3. The Structure of Personality 2.1.4. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development 2.1.5 Evaluation of Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory 2.2 Defense Mechanisms 2.3 Summary 2.4 Key Notes 2.5 Self-Assessment 2.6 Review Questions Further Readings Objectives  After going through this unit, you will be able to:  Understand the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud  Describe the dynamic interaction between the id, ego, superego and the outside world  Explain the various defense mechanisms  Present the psychosexual stages of development as put forward by Freud Introduction Psychodynamic concept is mainly formulated to reveal the underlying concepts of the mind. Sigmund Freud was the pioneer of this field. Along with his, Adler, Jung, Erikson and many neo- Freudians have framed psychodynamic concept. First attempt was made by Freud with his immense contribution on the structure of personality, topographical aspects of mind, psycho-sexual development of the children, defense mechanism of the ego, one by one he postulated wonderful theories in psychodynamics His theory was reframed by different contemporary psychologists like Adler, Jung and Erikson. Freud was influenced by WilhelmWundt and believed in the psychology of consciousness. He described three levels of consciousness- viz, conscious level, preconscious level and unconscious level. He first mentioned the existence of unconscious where all repressed LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1 DPSY523 Personality Theories wishes and desires are being dwelt in. He mentioned that 90 % of our psyche holds the unconscious. Freud proved the existence of unconscious by analyzing the dream. He said, “Dream is the royal Road to Unconscious “. His different theories of psychodynamics are so much discussed that sometimes it has been felt that his theory can contribute solely the subject matter of psychology. Later on Adler believed on personology where he stressed on Individual Psychology where he stressed upon the birth order to determine the personality of the individuals. Jung postulated “Analytical psychology” where he mentioned ‘collective unconscious’ along with personal unconscious which is similar to Freud’s unconscious,. In collective unconscious, Jung mentioned the cultural importance to frame the personality of the individuals. He mentioned different archetypes in this context. Jung also mentioned personality type which has become so popular – known as- Introversion and extraversion. Erikson gave Psycho-Social development stages of Individuals which unlike Freud has been continued from conception to death. He mentioned eight different stages of human life where the personality can be grown. Freudmade a technique for the treatment of mental illness and he named it as psychoanalysis which has been the first psychological treatment regime for the mental illness. In this method the patient is asked to close his eyes and after being seated in a couch he is instructed to say what is coming to his mind without hiding any unsocial or obscene words. Freud called it free-association. This technique was so popular that by the name of this technique Freud’s theory was popularly known as psycho- analytic theory. In this short span we will discuss different Freudian concepts of psychodynamics. Freud was drawn into medicine, not because he loved medical practice, but because he was intensely curious about human nature Freud said that personality of a person can be framed within childhood. He gave his theory of Psycho-sexual development of the child in this context. He told that “Sex is the nasty necessity of human life”. Freud mentioned that the child from the very onset of birth showing sexual gratification which he named as erogenous activity and there are different zones for gratification, which are known as erogenous zones.He differentiated the stages of psycho-sexual development as- oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage latent stage and genital stage. We will discuss in detail about this in later part of this chapter. When Sigmund was three, the two Freud families left Freiberg. Emanuel’s family and Philipp moved to England, and the Jacob Freud family moved first to Leipzig and then to Vienna. 2.1 Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Freud developed a technique that he called psychoanalysis and used it to treat mental disorders. According to this theory, Freud mentioned that free association, interpretation of dreams and analysis of case history can get the impression of the patient’s dynamics of his/her psychological problems and also give the way for cure. He got this idea from the classical case of Anna O who was suffering from lower limb paralysis and all the doctors were in same opinion that he could not be cured. Freud used the technique of free association and after few months Anna was able to walk properly. She could release the repressed unsolved conflicts of her early childhood with some adverse relation with her step- father. Psychoanalysis was so popular that Freud’s theory was known as Psycho-analytic theory. Punishment and suppression often create feelings of anxiety, and the anxiety in turn stimulates repression 2.1.1. Main Concepts of Psychoanalytical Theory Psychic Energy (Libido) Freud mentioned libido as the reservoir of energy and it is biological in nature. According to him, this libidinal energy cannot make its way to fulfill because of societal pressure. If it will be fulfilled 2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 2: Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud) or gratified, the person will be humiliated or it may be regarded as unsocial. So individual represses those libidinal energies into unconscious level of mind, sometimes those energies are so potent that those want to come into conscious, and that time neurotic anxiety occurs. Id is the structural component of libidinal energy and these are irrational in nature. They want immediate gratifications. But ego, the executive of mine controls the libidinal energy to come into conscious level and pushes them into the unconscious. This libidinal forces are mostly unfulfilled desires which are the main cause of neurotic tendencies, according to Freud. Drive Drive is the urge of libidinal energies when the individuals are driven by those energies. Mainly the drive force was controlled by the Id. A drive is characterized by four features (1) Source the bodily stimulus or need (2) impetus the amount of energy or intensity of the need (3) aim its goal and purpose (to reduce the excitation) and (4) object the person or object. Instincts Instincts are the expression of the inner drives and it is manifested through our behavior. Instinct are the basic generic qualities which may be the characteristics of that particular species. So it is mostly physiological in nature. Freud believes that our behavior is largely governed by instincts, rooted in the unconscious part of the mind. Instincts have four basic characteristics: (1) a source in some bodily deficit, (2) an aim gratification of the need, (3) an impetus that propels the person to act, and (4) an object through which the instinct achieves its aim. Types of instincts Freud grouped the instincts into two categories Life instincts Freud named the life instinct as ‘eros’ which means any positive activity which can elongate the life potentials. Positive expression of life instincts and its proper fulfillment can reduce the neurotic elements in life and which in turn make the person free from any mental diseases. So life instincts are very healthy for our life. Death instincts Freud named the death instinct as ‘Thanatos’. Any negative instincts like aggression, frustration, depression leads to mental illness. So increment of death instincts give the person be in unhealthy condition and it should be eliminated as far as possible. It leads to death of an individual. 2.1.2. The Levels of Personality In this segment, Freud postulated his theory of “topographical Aspects of Mind” where he mentioned three levels of consciousness, viz, conscious level, preconscious level and unconscious level. He mentioned that conscious level mainly deals with our conscious experiences and it is governed by reality principle. Freud stressed on unconscious level, he said that all of our repressed and unfulfilled desires are pushed by ego to the unconscious level because those are irrational and it will cause self-humiliation and embarrassment on the part of the ego, so ego represses those elements to the unconscious. Freud said that through dream analysis we can confirm that the existence of unconscious. When those repressed wishes have more affective loading then those are coming in a disguised form in our dream, that is why we have two contents of dream- 1) manifest content, 2) latent content. Manifest contents are those which we are dreaming and latent content gives the inner dynamics of those dreams. Freud also mentioned that when those elements have more force than it wants to come into the conscious, but due to ego it cannot come to the conscious in its real form, it comes in a disguised form- in the form of slip of the pen, slip of the tongue, forgetting of a common name etc. Freud called it ‘psychopathology of Everyday life’. It happens in our Pre-conscious level of mind. Freud mentioned, “we forget because we wish to forget”. He mentioned that these sips and forgetting have some unconscious repression for that we cannot perform it in a proper manner. His topographical aspects of mind has got immense importance because of the existence of unconscious. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 3 DPSY523 Personality Theories 2.1.3. The Structure of Personality Structure of personality includes three major parts of the mind Id, Ego, and Superego. Id:Freud mentioned the most primitive part of our personality structure is Id. It is governed by pleasure principle. It needs immediate gratification. It is irrational in nature. It is full of impulsive gratification, mainly the impulses are libidinal in nature. Due to ego, most of the time Id cannot get gratification. For that those impulses are repressed into unconscious by the ego if it has more forces to exhibit for gratification. Freud said that these repressed impulses our neurotic conflicts occur and we are prone to psychological diseases. Ego:Ego is the executive of mind. It is representing the self. It mediates between the Id and Super- ego. It is governed by reality principle. it always protects our self. Anything which can cause harm to the self, ego comes into action. Ego takes the advice of the Super-ego and tries to fulfill the impulses of Id as afar as practicable. Super ego: Super-Ego is the third part of the structure of Personality. It is our conscience- the right and wrong judgement. It deals with morality. It gives the ego a moral lesson. It always concerns with the good or bad. This morality we learn from the environment. http://journalpsyche.org/research-papers/index-by-topic/ 4 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 2: Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud) 2.1.4. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Freud’s most prominent contribution in the modern psychology is the psycho-sexual development of the children. He said that the personality of the individual can be framed on the gratification of each stage. All the psychological and personality aspects are being formed due to over gratification and under gratification of those erotic desires. Freud mentioned that sex is here the gratification of libidinal impulses in each stage. He also pointed out that due to changes in the life processes, the erogenous zones are changing according to the age group. 1. Oral stage (0-1 year) In the first stage, the erogenous zone is mouth. The child’s gratification is centered in mouth. He sucks the nipples of the breasts and after 1 year he want to bite it for seeking gratification. The child gets food (breast milk) for that he is very much fond of mother and to remove hunger he depends on his mother. If the mother feeds him after he is satiated, he will be over gratified which leads to hyperphagia-excessive eating in later stage of life. If the child is underfed, he will develop anorexia, lack of appetite in later stage of life. 2. Anal Stage (1-2 years) After 1 year the child’s erogenous zone will be anus. He gets satisfaction by discharging his feces or withholding it. During this time, toilet training is being done. If the parents are very strict and commanding in toilet training, the child will hold the feces for long time. It gives anal retentive personality in later stage of life. The person may be orderly, stringent and very obstinate. During holding the feces, sometimes the child is unable to hold it, and he excretes it inappropriate place and time, soiling the bed, soiling the dress etc. it gives rise to anal- expulsive personality in latter stage of life- the individual becomes- aggressive, gives way everything to others etc. 3. Phallic Stage (3-5 years) In this stage the erogenous zone will be the sex organ. The child sees his/her sex organ and rubs it to get the pleasure- it is termed by Freud as autoerotic activity. Two distinct features observed in this phase- 1) Oedipus Complex: - It is the intimate relation with the mother and the child. Here the child can perceive that he and his father possess the same sex organ but mother has the different one. He shows fear to his father as father may cut his penis, to remove the competitor of possessing mother.Freud termed it as castration anxiety. So, he develops fearful relation towards father and attachment towards mother. The name of Oedipus Complex has been taken from Greek Mythology, where King Oedipus married her mother. 2) Penis Envy:-For the girl child, it is known as Penis Envy. In this situation, the girl sees that only her father has the penis and she helds her mother responsible for that. So jealous towards mother and attachment towards father, so that father cannot go to her mother. Both Castration anxiety and penis Envy are called together as Castration Complex. 4. Latency stage (6-10 years) In this stage the child enters into school, where different new things are happened. Peer relationship and relationship with teachers give them a new way to life. Here the erogenous zone is diverted towards social activities. The child is expressing gratification by showing interest in reading, playing, creative art, dance etc. 5. Genital stage (10- Adolescence) Here the child’s sex organ is fully prepared for sexual activity and they want to gratify themselves through sexual activity related to chaoites. Here first sex characteristics activity will be self-love. After that heterosexual or homosexual activities are observed. 2.1.5 Evaluation of Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory Freud’s Theory has been evaluated in many dimensions. It is of manifold. 1. The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development. 2. Freud’s theory has been criticized on the ground that it has not been proved under experimentation. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 5 DPSY523 Personality Theories 3. For the prediction, it is very difficult to say that only for the under gratification, the expression of certain personality can be expressed. 4. Freud’s theory was solely based on case studies, not on any experimental findings. So the postulates can change case to case. 2.2 Defense Mechanisms Freud mentioned the defense mechanism of the ego, where the unresolved repressed urges are so powerful to come into consciousness but ego manages them not to come in an exact manner into the reality, ego takes the help of some mechanisms for which self cannot be harmed directly. These techniques are together Freud named as Defense mechanism of the Ego. Repression: By this mechanism, the unresolved, unfulfilled wishes are forcefully pushed back to the unconscious. Ram witnessed his mother being beaten by agoonda on a motor cycle who was trying to snatch away her gold chain. This happened around when he was seven years of age. He does not remember this incident as of today as an adult. This is so because he has repressed that traumatic incident into the unconscious. Reaction Formation: Here the unresolved wishes are expressed in opposite to its expression. Nisha feels attracted to her boss but does not admit this to herself. Instead, she constantly makes very disparaging comments about the boss, exactly opposite of her feelings of attraction. Projection: Directing individual’s own unresolved issues towards others, so that self will be saved. Karan gets attracted to women other than his wife and feels bad about it. However, he is not unable to state anything about it nor he wants to accept such feelings within him. He therefore unconsciously projects these feelings on to his wife saying that she is unfaithful and that she goes with other men and gets attracted to other men etc Rationalization: Giving irrational explanation in a wrong situation Ronak jumps a red light while driving. He justifies this by telling to himself that he was already in the intersection when the light changed to red. Displacement: Placing someone’s feelings to another person. Seth is angry at his professor for giving him a bad grade. He leaves class and shouts angrily at a passerby who accidentally bumps into him. Denial: Deny to accept something which is the true event of one’s life. Rashmi has started drinking alcohol which has started to affect her academic performance, her job, and her relationships. However, she insists that she drinks only to relieve stress and that she does not have an alcohol problem. Regression: Going back towards earlier stages of development which is inappropriate to the individual’s age.. When six-year-old Jameel gets less attention from his parents because of a new baby brother, he suddenly starts to wet his bed at night. Sublimation: Processing unacceptable things to a socially desirable things.. 6 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 2: Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud) Priya deals with her angry feelings toward her family by writing science fiction stories about battles between civilizations which contains a lot of aggression. 2.3 Summary Freud’s theory has automatically attracted people in so many ways. His theory has so many facets. His structure of mind gives us the first glimpse of id, ego and super-ego where we can clearly perceive the nature and extent of our mind. His topographical aspects of mind, where he first mentioned the existence of unconscious. His theory was very much moved with the concept of unconscious. In his psycho-sexual development, he mentioned Oedipus complex and penis envy which is very pertinent in the parent child relationship in today’s world. His therapeutic concepts in Psychoanalysis was so unique that it gives a path for later therapies for treating the patients. For assessing personality, and its dynamics along with unresolved issues lead to psychoneurosis are framed the base of modern clinical psychology. 2.4 Keywords Id: The impulsive part of mind Ego: Based on reality and decides on the basis of social, economical and personal status. Super Ego: Functions to control the id's impulses. Sublimation: According to Freud, sublimation is an ego defense mechanism that enables the person adaptively to divert impulse3s so that they may be expressed via socially approved thoughts or actions. 2.5 Self-Assessment 1. The Interpretation of Dreams was published in. A. 1900 B. 1800 C. 1909 D. 1965 2. The _____is the original source of personality, present in the new born infant. A. Id B. Ego C. Super-Ego D. All 3. Freud compared the human _____to an ice berg. A. Body B. Mind C. Personality D. Behaviour 4. The Ego obeys the _____Principle. A. Pleasure B. Reality C. Moral D. Perfection 5. Life instincts is also known as A. Eros LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 7 DPSY523 Personality Theories B. Sex C. Sleep D. Food 6. According to Freud, the mind’s three components are: A. ego, id, superego B. unconscious, moral, immoral C. oral, anal, phallic D. primary, secondary, tertiary 7. Freud was named ________ by his parents. A. Sigismund Freud B. Schlomo Sigismund Freud C. Sigmund Schlomo Freud D. Sigismund Schlomo Freud 8. Sigmund Freud is regarded the father of _________in psychology. A. Gestalt school B. Psychoanalytic school C. Behaviouristic school D. Functionalistic school 9. According to Freud, the mind’s three components are: A. ego, id, superego B. unconscious, ego, immoral C. ego, id, secondary D. primary and secondary 10. According to Freud, children pass through six stages of psychosexual development. A. True B. False 11. Freud argued that dreams have both ________ content and ________ content. A. Melatonin, depressant B. Depressant, manifest C. Manifest, latent D. Latent, latent 12. Freud believed that the primary function of dreams was wish fulfillment. A. True B. False 8 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 2: Psychoanalytic Approach (Sigmund Freud) 13. Latency period comes after the phallic stage A. True B. False 14. Freud developed a technique that he called psychoanalysis A. True B. False 15. Defense mechanisms are behaviors that protect people from anxiety A. True B. False Answers 01 02 03 04 05 A A B B A 6 7 8 9 10 A D B A B 11 12 13 14 15 C A A A A 2.6 Review Questions 1. DiscussandstatethepsychosexualstagesofdevelopmentbyFreud? 2. Discussthe resultifthereis adisturbanceinthesestages? 3. What are Oedipus and Electra complex? 4. Describe the oral and anal stages of psychosexual development? Write some of daily life example where we use defense machines? Further Readings Pervin, L. (1996). The Science of Personality. New York: Wiley Freud, S. (1900/1953). The interpretation of dreams. In Standard edition (Vols. 4 & 5) Freud, A. (1946). The ego and the mechanisms of defense. New York: International Universities Press LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 9  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians UNIT 03: Contemporary Freudians CONTENTS Objectives Introduction 3.1 Carl Jung 3.1.1 Theory of Personality 3.2 Critical Evaluation 3.3 Alfred Adler 3.3.1 Psychological types 3.3.2 Compensation, Overcompensation, and Complexes 3.4 Erikson 3.4.1 Conflict during Each Stage 3.4.2 Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson’s theory 3.5 Summary 3.6 Key Notes 3.7 Self-Assessment 3.8 Review Questions Further Readings Objectives  Provide an overview of the Contemporary Freudian theories  Understanding of different fields of psychology like analytical psychology and individual psychology  Better understanding of various aspects of personality development  Improved Knowledge of different stages of personality development Introduction Contemporary Freudian Psychoanalysis endeavors to respect our past while at the same time developing our present and future by incorporating consistently advancing changes in principle and strategy. Freud's unique hypothesis and practice conceptualized above and beyond a century prior has advanced and keeps on doing as such. 3.1 Carl Jung Carl Jung was a Neo Freudian psychologist as well as a psychiatrist who belonged to Switzerland and is recognized as the founder of branch of Psychology known as analytic psychology. Jung is known for developing the concepts of types of personality like extraversion and the introversion concept of various types of archetypes, and an important yet conflicting concept of collective LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1 DPSY523: Personality Theories unconscious. He has worked extensively in the field of psychiatry,theology, literature, and other such connected fields. 3.1.1. Theory of Personality Jung started the conceptualization of personality by putting forth four functions personality. According to him the mixture of these functions with different attitudes results in formation of eight personality types. The four functions are; feeling, thinking, sensation, and intuition. Feeling refers to an individual’scapability to acknowledge and understand the objects in his environment. This understanding of various objects is enabled by the second function known as Thinking. Sensation is being aware of the existence of things. Intuition refers to being aware of the existence of things around but without the knowledge of where that understanding came from.Followingcareful examination, Jung said that individuals not just experience the above mentioned functions but all the individuals on earth has all of these characteristics among themselves. Jung has exhibited this by ranking these functionswhere the one at the top is what exhibits commonly and the one at the lastis what person exhibits the least. The four personality types are described in terms of a compass.This compass consists of four points which are used by people to direct them in life. The individual who attain self-actualization is the one who has all these four traits developed fully within him. In 1907, Freud wrote a letter to Jung in which Freud offered high praise: “…I have already acknowledged…above all that your person has filled me with trust in the future, that I now know that I am dispensable like everyone else, and that I wish for no one other or better than you to continue and complete my work.” (pg. 136; cited in Wehr, 1989) After his extensive research, Jung noticed that all individuals in the world have a psychological type; however, it is very difficult to understand. Jung’s psychological types helped people to explore their real internalbeings however most of themwere unable to interpret or have regard for his compositework. It proved to be a vital defect of his research. Particular section of population said that Jung’s theory dig a bit too deep. However, Jung maintained that he has propounded this for the ones who want to discover and realize their true selves. His focus was on helping others to define and reach their ultimate goal in life. The attainment of which will fulfill their purpose of life. Individualism, in Jung’s thought was the most necessarypart of one’s life. Such people are capable of seeing the world in terms of complex and strong ideas. However, these ideas are mostly given to Extroversion-Thinking them by other individuals. Such individuals are often employed in areas such as mathematics and science. These humans have the ability to appreciate the subjective and creative ways of the world.Their analysiaztion comes from Introversion-Thinking inner knowledge. Such individuals are also often employed in areas science. The judgments of these individuals are based on factual knowledge and information. Their evaluations of the world are Extroversion-Feeling based upon social values and beliefs. Such individuals mostly choose business fields and politics as their work area. The beliefsof these people are based on emotions and feelings. Introversion-Feeling They often choose to be employed in areas related to different types of arts. These people believe in interpreting reality by carefully looking upon the world around them. They are not dependent upon Extroversion-Sensing opinions of others around them. They can be found in work fields such as taste testing or proof reading. 2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians Such individuals are focused on finding concealed meaning behind things. They do not perceive things have being devoid Introversion-Sensing of meaning or reason.They also often choose to be employed in areas related to different types of arts.. For these people facts are important than meanings. They avoid Extroversion-Intuitive their senses. These people are mostly inventors. These people judge world around on the basis of their internal Introversion Intuitive desires. They seek warmth inpersonalized ideas. Artists and people such religious gurus belong to this type. The collective unconscious can be defined as being a universal version of what at individual level is termed as personal unconscious. It holds various types of mental designs or memory traces, which are common for and shared with all other individuals of particular species (Jung, 1928). In relation to collective unconscious, Jung proposed the idea of archetypes. They can be viewed as ancestral memories, and can be recognized by having themes that are universal in nature and are found in various cultures. The expression of these ancestral memories is done in forms of dreams, various types of literature, arts, and dreams. Archetypes Archetypes can be defined as those models of personality, behaviors, actions or people that are innate or inborn and play prominent role in determining behavior of humans. Archetypes are part of collective unconscious and consist of various types of patterns and images which are universal in nature. According to Jung, humans acquire these archetypes in the same manner as we acquire other instinctive behavior patterns. Jung said that every archetype influences personality of an individual, howevermost individuals are dominantly affected bysingle specific archetype only. He said that the real manner through which an archetype is demonstrated or revealed is dependent on variousfactors. Out of these factors impact of culture and distinctive personal experiences of an individual are noticeable ones. Jung maintained that the number of archetypes can be limitless; however, he does recognized four major archetypes. These archetypes cannot be observed directly but their presence can be felt through religion, dreams, art, and literature. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 3 DPSY523: Personality Theories Persona One of the important archetypes of Jung is Persona which can be literally defined as “a mask” as its Latin source the word “persona” is translated into English as mask. The persona, however, is not a mask but a kind of mask for society or social mask that we put on while inhabiting as memners of various social groups and across social situations. It is the manner in which we present ourselves to others. Persona serves an individual by shielding one’s ego from negative imagery. Jun believed that an individual might see the persona in his/her dreams and it can assume various types of forms. The persona is influenced over development period as a child understands that he/she must behave in a particular manner, so that he/she can fulfill the expectations of the society around and also behave in accordance to the societal norms. The persona contains all of the primitive urges, impulses, and emotions that not accepted by the norms of society. Shadow Shadow is one of Jung’s archetypes that have its basis in instincts of sex and life. Shadow belongs to the unconscious mind of an individual and consists ofwishes, thoughts, weaknesses, instincts, and short comings that are otherwise repressed. The formation of shadow is the result of an individual’s effort to adjust and adapt in accordance to norms and expectations of the culture around. This archetype is a collection of all those things that are objectionable for the society and also unacceptable to an individual’s own morals, ethics and values. It can be a storehouse for feelings like those of aggression, greed, hate, envy etc. Jung said that shadow is expressed in one’s dreams, visions or other such forms.It can be visible in form ofa snake, a dragon, a demon, a monster, or some other dark, wild, or exotic figure. Anima & Animus These archetypes refer to feminine and masculine images. The anima is representation of femininity in the male psyche, and the animus represents image of a male in the female psyche. These two are prime sources of having transmission with collective unconscious. The anima and animus are representations’ of an individual’s "true self" and not the projected image that one shows to others. Jung held the belief that biological changes along with influences from societycontributes to the development of sex roles and gender identities. He also maintained that the archetypes of anima and animus also play an influential role in this process. The archetypal images are result of everything that is present in personal as well as collective unconscious. As the collective unconscious of a manmay have stored convictions about how women are supposed to behave while one to one experience with member of female gender in shape of wives, girlfriends, sisters, and mothers will help him in creating a more personal opinion of women. Self The self is another archetype described by Jung. It refers to a unification of unconsciousness and consciousness of an individual. This archetype is mostly depicted in the form of a circle, square, or mandala. Individuation is the process through which the self is developed. It refers to integration of different aspects of personality. If there is friction among the conscious and the unconscious aspect of mind, it can result in various kinds of psychological issues. Thus, it is very important that these issues are bought in awareness and their resolution is achieved. Individuation leads to the achievement of this resolution. Jung described two separate centers of personality:  The ego is at the center of consciousness;however the center of personality is made up by the self.  Consciousness is not the sole aspect of Personality. It also includes ego as well as the unconscious aspect of mind. 4 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians https://sites.google.com/site/psychologyofpersonalityperiod1/home/psychodyn amic-theories/adler-s-personality-theory 3.2 Critical Evaluation The ideas of Jung’s do not hold as much popularity as of his predecessor Freud’s. This can be due to various reasons such as his language of explaining the ideas was not such that even layman could understand them easily. Moreover, his theories and notions were not as widely distributed as of Freud. Another reason can be the mysticism and obscurity of his ideas. His ideas lacked experimental investigation as well as functional clarity. Largely, modern psychologists have not evaluated Jung’s ideas kindly. They believe that by his focus on concepts like archetypes and collective unconscious that are difficult to be proven empirically, Jung shifted his focus towards pseudo-philosophy and never shifted from that aspect to scientific ideas. Most of his theories are more closely related to mysticism than to psychological principles. But, even though Jung’s interest and work onancient myths and legends and his work on the field of astrology along with his enchantment with Eastern religion can be viewed as being full of mysticism and unscientific, one should not forget that the archetypes he was talking about in his research does have strong hold on the functioning of human mind and psyche. Moreover, Jung himself said that the persistentreappearance of symbols from mythology in personal psycho-therapy and in the fantasies of patients suffering from psychosis aid the notion of an inborn collective cultural leftover. In compliance with evolutionary theory it is possible that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions which at some point in history had important for survival of human. Jung said that reaction of humans to archetypes is same as animals have towards instinctual responses. This leads to another criticism for Jung’s ideas as researchers have not found any evidenceof the assumption that archetypes have their basis in biological make up of humans or have any resemblance to animal instincts (Roesler, 2012). Researchers such as Young-Eisendrath, (1995) have found that instead of being viewed as purely biological, archetypes are results of individual’s own experiences and mirror our linguistic and cultural attributes. Nevertheless, Jung’s ideas have contributed to mainstream psychology in at least one important respect. He was the first psychologist to put forth a distinction between two major attitudes or orientations of personality – extroversion and introversion. He also enriched the area of personality psychology by proposing four basic functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting) which result in eight personality types that have significant impact on the way an individual feels and behaves. 3.3 Alfred Adler Alfred Adler is one of the important figures in Psychology post Freud period. He held the view that the birth order is an important aspect of determining the personality of individuals and greatly impacts the organization of personality characteristics and inferiority feelings. Human beings have an inherit need to strive for superiority which motivates all of their behaviors and made them oriented towards a goal. However, there are individual differences in the way people achieve the goals set by them and goals also differ from one individual to another. Adler believed that the individuals have a complex which he termed as inferiority complex and they react to this complex in the form of compensation which is an inherit and healthy way to deal with inferiority. With the research of Alfred Adler’s which resulted in the emergence of individual psychology an abyss was created in psychology, which was previously dominated by Freud’s ideas about personality and his school of psychoanalysis. Freud’s belief that an individuals’ personality is affected by his internal processes of which sexual conflicts were mist important was challenged by Adler as he believed that if psychologists want to understand an individual in his totality, other factors from his external and external world are equally necessary. For this reason he named his ideas as school of individual psychology. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 5 DPSY523: Personality Theories 3.3.1 Psychological types Adler’s belief in uniqueness of every individual, lead him to negate the idea of personality types. He said that such a term shows apathy towards the unique characteristics of all individuals which should be focus of personality theorists. However, he put forth the concept of unique patterns that are results of development in childhood and prove to be helpful in treatment of patients that falls under those patterns. He termed these patterns as styles of life. He differentiated between four styles of life and give detailed description to them. Ruling Type: - This style of life consists of people who for the sake of gaining superiority do not shy away from pushing other people out of their path. They are full of energy which makes them to behave in this manner. Learning Type: -The people who fall under this category are emotional and create n armor around them so that people don’t take advantage of their sensitivity.They are low in terms of energy levels and so remain dependent upon people around them to help them with the difficulties they may face in life. These individuals are prone to psychological problems like anxiety, OCD and phobias etc. Avoiding Type: - For individuals falling under this category avoiding the issues in life are the best way to survive.They are the ones who are at the bottom of energy levels. They mostly choose to live in their own reality and have higher chanced of suffering from psychosis related problems. Socially Useful Type: -Adler considered these individuals to be healthy ones. They have enough energy and are interested in people around them. 3.3.2. Compensation, Overcompensation, and Complexes According to Adler, feelings of inferiority and inadequacy starts to take shape as early as in infancy, around the time an infant starts to get acquainted with the world around him/her. The different types of experiences gained during this stage of life has a deep impact on a child’s unconsciousness and guides the goals he/she will set for his life. These experiences include things like need for attention from caregiver or parent etc. These needs provide the infant with a necessity to work in the direction of finding remedy to the feelings of inferiority i.e. an urge to compensate this feeling of inferiority by focusing on development of other strengths. A child can encounter various numbers of outcomes on his journey towards compensation of inferiority. Under normal circumstances, where the child has access to required care, love and support he can easily accept the challenges posed to him and also learn that hard work will make these challenges go away from his life. Such a child will have normal development and has the strength to strive for perfection. But, at times, the process of compensating might go wrong. One such instance may be the times when feelings of inferiority are so strong that the child starts to believe that he exerts no power on his surroundings and life situations. In this situation, he will go after compensation very vigorously and might reach a point where compensation stops leading to satisfactory results. This situation leads to the state of overcompensation. It refers to the point where the child’s need to realize and fulfill his goals becomes excessive and detrimental. Adler (1917) put forth the example of an ancient Greek figure known as Demosthenes, to explain this process. Demosthenes became one of the greatest known Orators of his time even though he had suffered from stutter.Here, Demostheneshad feelings of inferiority due to the stuttering problem he was suffering from, he dealt with the problem not only by dealing with the problem but overcompensated by choosing to have a career in public speaking, something that is almost impossible for someone suffering from the problem he had. However, over compensation may result in the development of an inferiority complex. This may be result of lower self-esteem as the individual cannot correct his inferior feelings. Thus, overcompensation does actually show the presence of inferiority. Adler said that one can recognize inferiority complex in someone when that individual is always focusing on trying to look for circumstances in which he/she can shine in or succeed in. The reason for this desire is their feelings of inferiority which becomes formidable for them. 6 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians Adler differentiated two elements of feelings of inferiority namely primary inferiority feelings and secondary inferiority feelings. The feelings that can be termed as being original and normal feelings of inferiority and are visible in infants are primary feelings. Primary feelings are high-yielding and work as motivator for the child to grow in to striving adults Secondary inferiority is an element of inferiority that is present in the adults as a result of having excessive feelings of inferiority during the childhood. Secondary feelings can prove to be detrimental for the adult and they lead towards development of inferiority complex. 3.3.3. Birth Order Alfred Adler along with his research on psychological types and concepts of inferiority and superiority, focused extensively on the influence of birth order on an individual’s personality. He based on his extensive research concluded that birth order can have a significant impact on the way a child develops. Although he did not only recognize the importance of birth order in personality development but also maintained that the role of environment is also crucial in this regard. First Born Children According to Adler a family always showers the first born child with unmatchable attention. But, this huge quantity of attention is only available to the first born until the arrival of the second born. With the birth of the second child, the invisible throne on the first born child’s head is displaced. For which Adler used the term being ‘dethroned’. The first born child may react in one of these ways to the loss of unmatchable attention he was accustomed to: -  First born child can behave in a manner of securing him/her from this change in situation  First born child can become insecure or highly rigid  First born can start behaving like an aid to the parent when second child is born Second Born and Middle Children According to Alfred Adler, the second child or the middle child in some cases has to share the amount of attention that is being given to him/her by the parents/ caregivers with the first born child of the family. Due to this sharing in initial years of their development, second born children are high on the behavior of cooperation. Second born child grows while having an example (first born) that can be followed. Second born children always try to model their behavior in accordance to their elder sibling as they act as role models for them. According to Adler, it is the second born children who are well adjusted in their lives when compared to children of other birth orders. Last Born: The Baby Adler believed that the last born child does not feel the sense of being ‘dethroned’ by his/her siblings. The child at this birth order cannot enjoy being the role model for older siblings, and so can be bit unsympathetic towards them. The last born child to whom Adler termed as ‘the baby’ gets the most attention from family members as during his growing up years the other children of house have already reached the stage of development in their life where they have become somewhat independent and do not need the help and attention of parents as much as they did in earlier stages of development. Just as its predecessors, the various psychodynamic perspectives to personality, Adler’s perspective i.e. individual psychology has not been free from criticism. Most critics have termed it as unscientific as it is not easy to prove his theories empirically. Especially, Adler’s focus on unconscious fictious goals such as striving for superiority makes his theory of personality falsifiable. 3.4 Erik Erickson Erik Erikson is one of the pioneers of stage theory of personality development. He took forward Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual stages of personality development, and developed his own theory of personality defining eight stages of development which extend till old age of the individual. Erickson’s stages are characterized by conflict at each stage that works as a defining feature of that age. A smooth development of an individual into a confident and fully functions part of the scoeity depends upon the resolution of the conflict present during each stage.The non-resolution of these conflicts results in an individual feeling inadequate about him/her. The eight stages as defined by Erickson are as following trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 7 DPSY523: Personality Theories stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.In addition to expanding the personality development well into old age as compared to Freud’s stages that extends only up to adolescence, Erikson focused on understanding the role played by cultural norms in personality development of an individual. Cultures might differ in the ways they teach their members to deal with the conflicts of every stage. These teachings might be affected by the survival needs of the cultures. Erik Erikson is known as an ego psychologist who differed majorly from Freud in two ways. One, he believed that ego is not just a connecting force that mediated between needs of id and super ego rather it plays much more important role in development of human personality. It acts as a driving force in form of ego strengths that vary according to stage of development. Secondly, he placed huge importance on the impact of social reality of an individual on the development of his/her personality. Erikson was keen to understand the role people’s interaction with their social world and interpersonal relationships play in their growth and development. 3.4.1. Conflict during Each Stage Every stage in Erikson's psychosocial theory of developmentsets up on the previous stages and creates a path for next age/period of personality development. According to Erikson, every stage is characterized by a conflict that works as a crucial juncture in development. Erikson believed that, the conflict at every stage isfocused on development of psychological quality or failure of any such development. This means that at every stage the chances for personal growth are high but at the same time chances for failure is also high.The individuals who are able to handle these conflicts in the right way develop necessary psychological strengths which help them to move in a positive direction, their whole life. However, if people are unable to handle these conflicts in an efficient manner, it might lead to development of skills that are necessary to have robust sense of self. Mastery during a stage results in Ego Strength According to Erikson, the actions and behaviors of individuals are motivated by a feeling of competence. The focus of each stage of Erickson’s psychosocial theory is to attain competency in life. If an individual is able to handle the stage correctly, he/she will experience a sense of mastery, to which Erickson referred as ego strength or ego quality. However, if the individual is not able to successfully manage the stage, he/she might develop the feelings of inadequacy in that particular are of development.  Stage 1:- Trust vs. Mistrust: It is the first stage of psychosocial development and spans around form time of birth to the age of 1 year, as being the first stage it is the foundational stage for development. The main conflict of the state falls between developing trust or mistrust. As an infant is hugely dependent upon others for fulfillment of all the needs like basic needs i.e. food or social needs such as warmth, nurturance the development of trust towards caregiver becomes very important for smooth growth. 8 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians Outcomes If child receives required love and warmth from caregivers, they will develop a trust on others for lifetime. If the development of trust is successful, the result will be a safe and secure child who trusts the world around him/her. Is the caregiver is Caregivers who are unpredictable, not available emotionally, or reject the child, leads the child dependent on their care towards feelings of mistrust. Such a child will not be able to nurture trust in the world around him/her and will believe that the world is also inconsistent. Stage 2:- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Psychosocial development theory of personality by Erikson has placed autonomy vs. shame and guilt as second stage of personality development. It happens in early childhood with a focus on development of control of parents/caregiver on the child. Importance of Independence During this stage, child begins to attain independence although in tiny amount. They began to do fundamental tasks by themselves and learn to make decisions about what they like. The important role that parents/caregivers can play at this stage is to let the child attain feeling of autonomy by letting them make choices on their own and getting some control on their decisions. Potty Training The second stage of Erikson’s theory revolves around the need for a child to have a power over physical skills and to attain some independence in dealing with the needs that require those physical skills. Potty training is an essential part of developing this sense of control. Erikson agreed with Freud on this point that toilet training is an essential part of developing feelings of autonomy on self and surroundings. Even though the reasons for this belief was not same. For Erikson learning how to have power over the functioning of one’s own body results in having sense of control and independence. This stage is also marked by other essential milestones like having control on what to eat, what to play with or selecting one’s own clothes. Outcomes Those children who have to struggle to gain personal bodily autonomy and those who might be ridiculed for their mistakes may never be able to develop healthy feelings of self-control. If this stage’s conflict ends successfully, it is marked by development of sense of autonomy while the failure in resolution of the conflict leads to development of sense of shame and doubt in the child. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt: This the third stage of Erikson’s theory and it happens during the years of pre-school.In this stage the child learns to use power and to have control on their surroundings. The ways to exert this control is learned through play and interacting with people around the child. The successful resolution of conflict at this stage of development leads the child to have belief in his/her capabilities and his ability to be a leader in life. However, unsuccessful conflict resolution leads to prevalent feelings of guilt, self-doubt and shortage of taking initiative in different situations throughout life. Outcomes This stage revolves around the issue of developing competence of asserting power and control towards the circumstances around oneself. The successful resolution of conflict here results in developing a sense of purpose while a child who employs too much strength may have to go through the feelings of disapproval leading to high levels of guilt. Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority: This stage lasts between 5 to 11 years of age i.e. around the time of early school years. The focus of this stage is social communication by the use of which child starts to build feelings of pride for their capabilities and achievements. During this stage child learns to deal with fresh and increased demands of social as well as academic environment. Successful resolution of conflict here develops the feelings of being competent while unsuccessful resolution leads towards feeling inferior. Outcomes LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 9 DPSY523: Personality Theories The development of feelings of being competent and having self-belief in their capabilities is a result of encouragement and praise by parents and teachers. However, lack of these two reactions from teachers, parents and friends will lead towards self-doubt on one’s abilities and skills. Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion: The stage of development happens at the time of adolescence which is marked by turbulence in the lives of all individuals. The stage is very crucial in the development of self-identity which keeps on affecting the way an individual will behave through the rest of their life. It is important for adolescents to have their own unique self and personal identity. Outcomes Successful resolution of conflicts at this stage teaches an individual to remain true to his/her self. However, if the conflict is not resolved successfully it leads to confusion regarding one’s role in life and results in a weak self-development. This is the time for adolescents to explore their selves and independence in order to develop a proper self-identity. Encouragement from parents, teachers, peers and other important individuals during this stage results in development of robust sense of self and sense of control and independence among themselves. Those who do not receive this encouragement may never able to develop a strong self and may stay skeptical of their wishes, desires, abilities and have feelings of insecurity and confusion about their own self and about future. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation: It is the stage that covers the young adult life of an individual and is marked by the desire to have intimate and loving. Young adults need to form intimate, loving associations with others. Outcomes Successful resolution of conflicts leads to have robust connections with others while unsuccessful resolution results in being lonely and isolated. It is the time to explore associations and connections at personal level. For Erikson having tight and committed connections with others is a vital aspect of having a good life. Individuals at this stage are successful if they are able to have safe, secure and lasting relationships with others. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation: This stage is during the middle adulthood phase of psychosocial development. It is marked by the need to leave behind one’s legacy i.e. to have things that will outlive an individual’s lifetime. This is generally attained by having kids or by bringing in change to the lives of other people in a positive manner. Outcomes Success during this stage leads to have a sense of usefulness feelings of being accomplished something important in life. However, unsuccessful resolution of conflict at this stage leads to wards superficial interests in the world. It also leads to have feelings of being unproductive. Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair: The last stage of Erickson’s psychosocialdevelopment of personality. It takes place when an individual has entered the old age. It is marked by having feelings of reflection about the gone by life years. During this stage people like to evaluate their lives in order to assess if their life was happy and satisfactory or they have regret and feelings of unhappiness about the things they wished they had done in their lives. Outcomes The ones who feel that they have leaded a successful and happy life approach their end with sense of tranquility and fulfillment. They are high on sense of wisdom and gratitude. On the other end, the people who have regrets and feelings of unhappiness towards life are scared of their end. This fear is the result of thoughts of leaving this world without accomplishing what one intended to for this life. These individuals have strong feelings of sourness and hopelessness and wasting their life in vain. Highlight the Jung perception from the standpoint of scientific psychology 10 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians 3.4.2. Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson’s theory The uniqueness of Erikson's theory lies in the fact that he did not exclude any people of any age from the stages of development. According to him development of personality beginning in infancy lasts well into the old age. This particular factors differs Erikson from Freud and his other Neo- Freudian contemporaries such as Adler and Jung. Erikson’s theory of personality development forms a strong base for deliberations on not only social but also emotional development that too during the whole lifespan of individuals. However, an crucial noticeable point in this regard is that that stages and the associated crises can take place than one time and also during different ages in one’s lifetime. For example, an individual might have to fight his sense of mistrust even after infancy has ended. However, Erikson’s viewpoint on personality development has received criticism for its heavy and intense focus on stages and for his assumption that the successful accomplishment of one stage is necessary to the onset of another crisis for development. Erickson also heavily relied on importance of expectations of social environment on development of personality which is more potent in some cultures, but is not a universal phenomenon. For example, the notion that teen agers must search for their self and identity can seen to be more evident only in middle-class culture of the United States, albeit not in the societies where the transformation into being an adult co-exist with puberty and adults have far lesser choices to build their lives in the way they want and desire. To a great extent, Erikson’s notion that development keeps on happening throughout the lifespan is very important and has been widely accepted. But just like Freud, he has received criticism for having vagueness in his theory that made it hard to have proper scientific testing of the theory. 3.5 Summary: The unit focuses on some of the most important figures in Psychology termed as Neo-Freudians and the crucial theories of personality development given by them. They all contributed by carrying forward the ideas propounded by Freud, in some instances by agreeing with him, while at other times disagreeing and criticizing him. Nevertheless, they contribute largely into the understanding humans had regarding the development of personality. Whether it was Jung with his ideas of collective unconscious and archetypes or Adler with his views on psychological types and the importance of birth order in determine the personality of individuals or it was Erickson with his unique idea of seeing personality development as a lifelong process, these ideas have immensely contributed and made the area of personality research richer. 3.6 Keywords: The Persona:It is the way in which we present ourselves to the world. The Shadow: It is that part of our unconscious mind which is composed of repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and short comings. Archetypes:Archetypes are universal, innate models of people, behaviors, or personalities that play a role in influencing human behavior. The archetypes represent universal patterns and images that are part of the collective unconscious. 3.7 Self-Assessment Q. No.1- These people bases their feelings on emotional feelings and beliefs. Which personality type they belong to? A. Extroverted Thinking B. Introverted Feeling C. Introverted Thinking D. Extroverted Thinking Q. No.2- Which aspect of family Adler believed plays a significant role in personality development? A. Age of parents when child is born B. Size of extended family C. Birth Order D. Gender of Siblings LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 11 DPSY523: Personality Theories Q. No.3- Which of these is not an archetype? A. Primus B. Anima C. Animus D. Persona Q. No.4- Adler’s which personality type is reflected in following characterstics; sensitive and build a shell around themselves, dependent on others to help them with life difficulties? A. Ruling Type B. Avoiding Type C. Socially Useful Type D. Learning Type Q. No.5- Which of the following conflicts arise during pre-school stage of development A. Shame vs. Doubt B. Trust vs. Mistrust C. Industry vs. Inferiority D. Autonomy vs. Shame Q. No.6- What is the virtue of Initiative vs. Guilt stage of Erickson? A. Purpose B. Fidelity C. Love D. Care Q. No.7- When the child’s focus on meeting his goal is exaggerated and becomes pathological, it results in A. Compensation B. Overcompensation C. Inferiority Complex D. Superiority Complex Q. No.8- What is the correct sequence of virtues according to Erickson’s stages of development? A. Hope, Will, Purpose, Competence, Fidelty, Love, Care, Wisdom B. Hope, Will, Competence, Fidelty, Care, Wisdom, Love, Purpose C. Hope, Fidelty, Competence, Will, Care, Wisdom, Love, Purpose D. Hope, Will, Purpose, Fidelty, Care, Wisdom, Love, Competence Q. No.9- Which personality theorist believed that all human behavior is goal orientated and motivated by striving for superiority? A. Alfred Adler B. Erick Erickson C. Sigmund Freud D. Carl Jung Q. No.10- The shadow is an archetype that consists of the _________. A. Sex and life instincts B. Death and life instincts C. Love and life instincts D. Sex and death instincts 12 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 3: Contemporary Freudians Q. No.11-Carl Jung was a _________psychologist. A. French B. Swiss C. Spanish D. None of them Q. No.12- Which of the following is not a function in Jung’s theory? A. Sensation B. Perception C. Intuition D. Feeling Q. No.13- Which of the following is the first stage in Erikson's theory of development? A. autonomy vs. shame and doubt B. initiative vs. guilt C. industry vs. inferiority D. trust vs. mistrust Q. No.14- At what time of life does Erikson stage Industry vs. Inferiority occur? A. old age B. adolescence C. infancy D. school age Q. No.15- An ‘idiographic’ approach to personality maintains that … A. personality psychology should seek generalizations about people B. a standard set of descriptive concepts can be applied to all people C. people should be investigated as unique individuals D. personality research should study large samples of people Answers 1- Introverted Feeling 2- Birth Order 3- Primus 4- Learning Type 5- Autonomy Vs. Shame 6- Purpose 7- Overcompensation 8- Hope, Will, Purpose, Competence, Fidelty, Love, Care, Wisdom 9- Alfred Adler 10- Sex And Life Instincts 11- Swiss 12- Perception 13- Autonomy Vs. Shame And Doubt 14- School Age 15- People Should Be Investigated As Unique Individuals LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 13 DPSY523: Personality Theories 3.8 Review Questions Q. No.1- Describe Erickson’s stages of personality development in detail? Q. No.2- What effects doe’s birth order has on an individual’s personality development? Q. No.3- Write a note on different types of archetypes. Q. No.4- Critically evaluates Jung’s theory of personality. Further Readings Lewin K. A Dynamic Theory of Personality. McGraw-Hill; New York, NY, USA: 1935. Jung C.G. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Volume 17 Routledge and Kegan Paul; London, UK: 1946. Analytical Psychology and Education Personality Identity and Character Explorations In Moral Psychology - Darcia Narvaez. Personality in Adulthood - Robert McCrae 14 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 4: Neo Freudians Unit 4 Neo Freudians Contents Objectives Introduction 4.1 Erich Fromm 4.2 Karen Horney 4.3 Sullivan's Theory 4.4 Key Notes 4.5 Summary 4.5 Self-Assessment 4.6 Review Questions Further Readings Objectives  To understand the difference between Freudian and neo Freudian psychology  Lean the personality theories of neo Freudian  Discuss the work of Karen Horney  Explain Harry Stack Sullivan theory of personality Introduction Neo-Freudian are those psychologists who agreed with many of the fundamental tenets of Freud's psychoanalytic theory but changed and adapted the approach to incorporate their own beliefs, ideas, and opinions. “A somewhat imprecise term embracing those analysts who follow Freud but who depart in one or other way from classic analytic theory. Jung and Adler founded their own schools of psychoanalysis and may or may not be regarded as Neo-Freudians; in general Neo- Freudians are represented by Karen Horney, Erich Fromm and Harry Stack Sullivan together with their followers. They place great emphasis on the reaction of the individual to his current environment, anxiety the patient doctor relationship. There is less emphasis on sexuality and the analysis of infantile sexual experiences” Campbell’s Psychiatric Dictionary, 2009 4.1 Erich Fromm Erich Fromm was a German social psychologist and psychoanalyst who was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. He was known for giving the concept that freedom was a basic part of human nature and for challenging the theories of Sigmund Freud. Fromm was a lone kid brought into the world to Orthodox Jewish guardians in Frankfurt on March 23, 1900. He is associated with numerous reasons: as the author of “The Art of Loving and To Have Or to Be!”; “as a social psychologist and explorer of the authoritarian character; as a humanist, psychologist of religion, and “student of the nature of aggression”; and also as a member of the LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1 DPSY523: Personality Theories Frankfurt School, he is one of the few psychologists who seriously engaged himself with theorizing the problems of freedom in his works especially in “The Fear of Freedom” or “The Escape of Freedom.” "The Fear of Freedom" or "The Escape of Freedom", undoubtedly summons a discrete idea of individual opportunity and that there is a reasonable association among "autonomous" and "singular" opportunity for him. To see how actually opportunity for him connects to a few phases of opportunity in his works, in any case, we need to discover what idea of opportunity is inferred by his origination of human opportunity. Does it interface with positive or negative opportunity, or even pre-opportunity? Pre freedom It would not be feasible to discuss 'negative freedom' or 'positive freedom' in Fromm's ideas without alluding to a phase which the author calls “pre-freedom", on the grounds that in Fromm's theory of opportunity, the negative freedom and positive freedom are the stages after pre-freedom, as follows In pre-freedom an individual is aware of himself just as an individual from local area, race, party, organization, and so on For this situation, the individual's activity did not depend on self acknowledgment, self recognizable proof, etc. All in all, the individual is as yet identified with the world by essential ties. He/she doesn't yet think about him/herself as a person besides thanks to his/her social job. “In the middle Ages both sides of human consciousness - that which was turned within as that which was turned without - lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish pre- possession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues. Man was conscious of himself only as member of a race, community, party, family, or corporation - only through some general category”. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Erich_Fromm Negative Freedom It is essential to clarify that Fromm’s theory of negative freedom does not unite Berlin's theory of negative freedom or Hobbes an analysis of freedom; his analysis of negative freedom is absolutely different from Berlin's theory of negative freedom, just as “Thomas Hobbes's theory of freedom, which is absence of oppositions or obstacle. In other words, the concept of negative freedom that Fromm invokes in his works can best be understood as different from Berlin's theory of negative freedom and also Hobbes's theory of freedom. According to these two theories, Fromm's theory of negative freedom and Berlin's theory of negative freedom, the difference is in their understanding of what counts as a constraint on or hurdle of negative freedom”. According to Skinner, “for the classical liberals, only direct interference (physically or by coercing our will) counts as such, whereas the republicans believe that the mere possibility of interference resulting from one’s being ‘within the power of another’ makes man unfree, or a slave. Fromm's theory of negative freedom has a twofold meaning: “(however, Berlin's theory of negative freedom dose not) the first is that a person is free from things such as traditional bonds, society, religion, and so on. Meanwhile, the person who feels alone, as Fromm said according to human history”: “It showed that freedom from the traditional bonds of medieval society, though giving the individual a new feeling of independence, at the same time made him feel alone and isolated, filled him with doubt and anxiety, and drove him into new submission and into a compulsive and irrational activity”. He believed that “human is free in this circumstance, but this freedom is not satisfactory because the person gives up the security that he/she had in pre-freedom stage; in other words, human being will be deprived of the security that he had enjoyed, of the unquestionable feeling of belonging, and he is torn loose from the world which had satisfied his quest for security, both materially and spiritually”. Positive Freedom 2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY  Unit 4: Neo Freudians The main focus of this part is the main concept of “"Positive freedom" in Fromm's theory of freedom like any other issue;”this issue cannot be studied from just one aspect and in a single framework”. Rather, “if it is intended to study realization of freedom in a realistic and scientific form, all aspects and causes of the issue should be sufficiently scrutinized; for this reason, it can be understood that Fromm's