GES 101 Exam #3 PDF

GES 101 Exam #3 GES 101 Exam 3 Topics Chapter 1 Understanding Geologic Scales https://stratigraphy.org/chart The span of time since the formation of Earth's history into blocks of time Eons...

GES 101 Exam #3 GES 101 Exam 3 Topics Chapter 1 Understanding Geologic Scales https://stratigraphy.org/chart The span of time since the formation of Earth's history into blocks of time Eons Billions of years. Hadean Archaean Proterozoic Eras Hundreds of millions of years Paleozoic Cenozoic Periods Tens of millions of years Cambrian Triassic Quaternary Epochs Shorter spans of time, often lasting millions of years Pleistocene Eocene GES 101 Exam #3 1  Ages Smallest unit standard unit, hundreds, thousands, few millions of years The time scale was created using relative dating principles Planetary Formation Formed 4.6 billion years ago Chapter 11: Geologic Time The geological timescale is a system used by geologists to organize Earth's history into a series of time intervals. These intervals reflect significant geological and biological events, such as mass extinctions, climate changes, and the evolution of life forms. The timescale is hierarchical, dividing time into broad units that are further subdivided into smaller ones. Here's how it is structured: 1. Eons The largest time units. Represent hundreds of millions to billions of years. Earth's history is divided into four eons: Hadean (4.6–4.0 billion years ago): Earth's formation and early crust development. Archean (4.0–2.5 billion years ago): First known life forms appeared. Proterozoic (2.5 billion–541 million years ago): Oxygenation of the atmosphere. Phanerozoic (541 million years ago–present): Explosion of life diversity. 2. Eras Subdivisions of eons. Mark significant changes in Earth's flora and fauna. Example within the Phanerozoic Eon: GES 101 Exam #3 2  Paleozoic Era (541–252 million years ago): Explosion of marine life and the rise of fish, amphibians, and early reptiles. Mesozoic Era (252–66 million years ago): Age of dinosaurs and the rise of mammals. Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago–present): Mammals and humans dominate. 3. Periods Subdivisions of eras. Highlight major geological events, such as ice ages, mountain-building, and mass extinctions. Example from the Mesozoic Era: Triassic Period: Early dinosaurs and the first mammals. Jurassic Period: Dominance of dinosaurs, the appearance of birds. Cretaceous Period: Extinction of dinosaurs and the rise of flowering plants. 4. Epochs Subdivisions of periods. Provide finer resolution for studying Earth's history. Example from the Cenozoic Era: Paleocene Epoch: Recovery from the mass extinction that ended the dinosaurs. Eocene Epoch: First modern mammals appear. Holocene Epoch: Current epoch, beginning about 11,700 years ago, marking human civilization's rise. 5. Ages The smallest units of geological time. GES 101 Exam #3 3  Represent specific events or conditions within an epoch. Example from the Holocene Epoch: Meghalayan Age: The current age, starting around 4,200 years ago, associated with global climate changes. Hierarchical Summary Unit Example Time Scale Eon Phanerozoic Hundreds of millions/billions of years Era Mesozoic Tens to hundreds of millions of years Period Jurassic Tens of millions of years Epoch Holocene Millions to thousands of years Age Meghalayan Thousands to hundreds of years How it’s Determined Geologists determine these intervals using: 1. Fossil Records: Evolutionary milestones and mass extinctions. 2. Radiometric Dating: Measuring isotopes in rocks. 3. Stratigraphy: Layering of rock formations. The geological timescale serves as a framework for understanding Earth's complex history, helping scientists study its dynamic changes over billions of years. Chapter 12: Earth’s Evolution Through Time Here’s a detailed explanation for each prompt to help understand these geological and historical concepts: Relative Aging Relative aging determines the sequence of geological events without exact dates, based on their position and relationships. GES 101 Exam #3 4  Principle of Superposition (Steno) In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest layers are at the bottom, and the youngest are at the top. This principle helps establish the relative ages of rock layers. Principle of Original Horizontality (Steno) Sediments are initially deposited in horizontal layers. If layers are tilted or folded, the deformation occurred after their deposition. Principle of Lateral Continuity (Steno) Rock layers extend horizontally until they thin out or encounter a barrier. This principle aids in correlating rock layers across gaps like valleys. Principle of Fossil Succession (Smith) Fossil organisms succeed one another in a predictable order. Identifying fossils in rock layers allows for correlating and relatively dating those layers. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relations (Lyell) A rock or fault that cuts through another rock unit is younger than the unit it cuts. This principle helps identify the sequence of geological events. Principle of Inclusions (Lyell) Fragments (inclusions) within a rock are older than the rock itself. For example, pebbles in a conglomerate are older than the surrounding matrix. Numerical / Radiometric Aging This method calculates the exact age of rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes. It provides absolute dates to complement relative dating. When to Use Carbon / Uranium Dating Carbon Dating: Effective for dating organic materials up to ~50,000 years old. GES 101 Exam #3 5  Uranium Dating: Used for dating older rocks (millions to billions of years), such as zircon crystals. How Radiometric Dating Works Radiometric dating measures the ratio of parent isotopes (unstable) to daughter isotopes (stable) in a sample. The rate of decay, known as the half-life, is constant and determines the age of the material. Processes of Fossil Formation 1. Permineralization: Minerals fill spaces within organic material. 2. Molds and Casts: Impression of the organism preserved in rock. 3. Carbonization: Organic material leaves a carbon imprint. 4. Amber: Organisms trapped in tree resin. 5. Freezing or Desiccation: Preservation in ice or dry conditions. Precambrian History Hadean Solidification The Earth’s crust began to solidify ~4.6 to 4.0 billion years ago. Early Earth was dominated by molten rock, intense volcanism, and frequent impacts. Archean Emergence of Single-Celled Life Single-celled prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, appeared ~3.5 billion years ago, producing oxygen through photosynthesis. Proterozoic Oxygenation Oxygen levels rose during the Great Oxidation Event (~2.4 billion years ago), transforming Earth's atmosphere and oceans. Proterozoic Emergence of Multicellular Life The first multicellular organisms, like algae and simple animals, emerged ~1 billion years ago. GES 101 Exam #3 6  Paleozoic History Cambrian Explosion Around 541 million years ago, a rapid diversification of life occurred, resulting in the first appearance of most major animal groups. Devonian Land Run The Devonian Period (~419–359 million years ago) saw the colonization of land by plants, insects, and the first tetrapods (early amphibians). Permian Extinction The largest mass extinction (~252 million years ago) wiped out ~90% of species, ending the Paleozoic Era. Permian Formation of Pangaea The supercontinent Pangaea formed, drastically altering climates and ecosystems. Mesozoic History Triassic Reptile Dominance Following the Permian extinction, reptiles, including the first dinosaurs, became dominant ~252–201 million years ago. Jurassic Breakup of Pangaea Pangaea began to split into smaller landmasses during the Jurassic (~201–145 million years ago), creating new habitats. Cretaceous Formation of the North American Cordillera Mountain-building processes along the western edge of North America formed the Cordillera during the Cretaceous Period (~145–66 million years ago). Cenozoic History GES 101 Exam #3 7  Paleogene Formation of the Panamanian Isthmus The Isthmus of Panama formed ~3 million years ago, connecting North and South America and altering ocean currents. Neogene Australopithecus Evolution Early human ancestors, such as Australopithecus, appeared during the Neogene (~23–2.6 million years ago). Quaternary (Pleistocene) Ice Ages Repeated glaciation events occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch (~2.6 million to 11,700 years ago), shaping modern landscapes. Quaternary (Holocene) Human Development The Holocene Epoch (~11,700 years ago–present) marks the rise of agriculture, civilizations, and technological advancements. Chapter 16: The Atmosphere Weather vs. Climate Weather: The short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific area, including temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation, lasting from minutes to weeks. Climate: The long-term average of weather patterns over decades to centuries for a specific region or globally. Elements of Weather / Climate 1. Temperature: Measures heat energy in the atmosphere. 2. Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air. 3. Precipitation: Includes rain, snow, sleet, or hail. 4. Wind: Air movement caused by differences in pressure. 5. Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of the air above an area. 6. Cloud Cover: The extent of clouds, influencing temperature and precipitation. GES 101 Exam #3 8  Effect of Atmospheric Gases on Weather Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) A greenhouse gas that traps heat in Earth's atmosphere. Increasing CO₂ levels contribute to global warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect. Water Vapor The most abundant greenhouse gas. Amplifies the greenhouse effect because warmer air holds more moisture, creating a positive feedback loop. Aerosols Tiny particles or droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Can cool the atmosphere by reflecting sunlight or warm it by absorbing heat. Influence cloud formation and precipitation patterns. Ozone (O₃) Found in two layers: Stratosphere: Protects Earth from harmful UV radiation. Troposphere: Acts as a pollutant and greenhouse gas, affecting air quality and weather. Effect of CFCs on Ozone Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Human-made chemicals used in refrigeration and aerosols. Impact: Break down ozone molecules in the stratosphere, creating the "ozone hole." This depletion allows more UV radiation to reach Earth's surface, increasing risks like skin cancer and harming ecosystems. GES 101 Exam #3 9  Pressure, Temperature, and Altitude Trends 1. Pressure: Decreases with altitude due to less air above. 2. Temperature: Decreases in the troposphere with altitude. Increases in the stratosphere due to ozone absorption of UV. Alternates in other atmospheric layers. 3. Altitude: Directly influences pressure and indirectly affects temperature and weather conditions. Types of Heat Transfer 1. Conduction: Transfer of heat through direct contact (e.g., Earth's surface warming the air). 2. Convection: Transfer through fluid movement (e.g., warm air rising, cool air sinking). 3. Radiation: Transfer through electromagnetic waves (e.g., heat from the Sun). Reflection / Albedo Albedo: The measure of how much sunlight is reflected by a surface. High Albedo: Light-colored surfaces like ice and snow reflect more sunlight, cooling the Earth. Low Albedo: Dark surfaces like forests and oceans absorb more sunlight, warming the Earth. How Greenhouse Gases Trap Heat 1. Solar Radiation: The Sun emits energy, primarily as visible light. 2. Absorption: Earth's surface absorbs this energy and radiates it as infrared (heat) energy. 3. Trapping: Greenhouse gases (e.g., CO₂, CH₄, H₂O vapor) absorb and re-emit infrared energy, preventing heat from escaping into space. GES 101 Exam #3 10  4. Effect: Maintains Earth's average temperature but excessive greenhouse gases amplify this, causing global warming. Chapter 17: Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation Daily Fluctuations in Temperature and Relative Humidity Temperature: Peaks during mid-afternoon when the Sun's energy has accumulated. Lowest just before sunrise due to radiative cooling overnight. Relative Humidity: Inversely related to temperature. Highest in the early morning when temperatures are lowest. Lowest in the afternoon when temperatures peak because warm air can hold more water vapor, reducing relative humidity. Adiabatic Cooling Definition: Cooling of air as it rises in the atmosphere due to expansion without heat exchange. Process: Air pressure decreases with altitude, allowing air to expand. As the air expands, it cools. Adiabatic Lapse Rates: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate: ~10°C per kilometer for unsaturated air. Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate: ~5–9°C per kilometer for saturated air, slower due to latent heat release during condensation. Cloud Affixes 1. Cirro-: High-altitude clouds (above 6,000 meters). GES 101 Exam #3 11  Thin, wispy, and made of ice crystals. 2. Alto-: Mid-level clouds (2,000–6,000 meters). Includes altostratus and altocumulus. 3. nimb-: Indicates rain-producing clouds. Example: Cumulonimbus (thunderstorm clouds). 4. stratus: Layered, sheet-like clouds covering large areas. Examples: Stratus (low altitude), Altostratus (mid-altitude). 5. cumul-: Puffy, heap-like clouds. Examples: Cumulus (fair weather clouds), Cumulonimbus (storm clouds). How Precipitation Forms Precipitation forms when water vapor condenses into droplets or ice crystals that grow large enough to overcome updrafts and fall to the ground. The process depends on the temperature of the cloud. Collision-Coalescence Process Occurs in warm clouds (above freezing). Process: 1. Small water droplets collide and merge to form larger droplets. 2. Larger droplets continue to grow through repeated collisions. 3. When droplets become heavy enough, they fall as rain. Bergeron (Cold-Coalescence) Process GES 101 Exam #3 12  Occurs in cold clouds (below freezing at high altitudes). Process: 1. Ice crystals form and grow by capturing water vapor. 2. Supercooled water droplets evaporate, providing additional vapor for the ice crystals. 3. Ice crystals grow larger and fall as snow or melt into rain before reaching the surface. These mechanisms explain how atmospheric conditions drive daily weather patterns and precipitation processes, vital for understanding Earth's water cycle. Chapter 18: Air Pressure and Wind Factors Affecting Wind Wind is the movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. It is influenced by three primary factors: 1. Pressure Gradients Definition: The rate of pressure change across a horizontal surface. Effect: Air moves from high-pressure zones to low-pressure zones, and the greater the gradient, the stronger the wind. Represented by closely spaced isobars on weather maps. 2. Coriolis Effect Definition: The apparent deflection of moving air due to Earth’s rotation. Effect: In the Northern Hemisphere, air deflects to the right. In the Southern Hemisphere, air deflects to the left. Strongest at the poles and absent at the equator. 3. Friction Definition: The resistance caused by air moving over surfaces. GES 101 Exam #3 13  Effect: Slows wind near the surface and reduces the Coriolis effect. More pronounced over rough terrains (forests, cities) than over smooth surfaces (oceans). Global Winds Global wind patterns are driven by the uneven heating of Earth’s surface and the planet’s rotation. Three-Cell Circulation Model 1. Hadley Cell (0°–30° latitude): Warm air rises at the equator (Intertropical Convergence Zone, ITCZ), moves poleward, cools, and sinks at ~30° latitude, creating trade winds. 2. Ferrel Cell (30°–60° latitude): Air flows poleward at the surface and equatorward aloft, driving the westerlies. 3. Polar Cell (60°–90° latitude): Cold air sinks at the poles and moves equatorward at the surface, creating polar easterlies. Influence of Continents Landmasses disrupt the global wind patterns and create seasonal variations, such as monsoons. Continents heat and cool faster than oceans, intensifying pressure gradients and wind shifts. Local Winds Continental Tropical (cT) Hot and dry air mass from land areas, such as deserts. Typically forms over the southwestern U.S. GES 101 Exam #3 14  Continental Polar (cP) Cold and dry air mass from high-latitude land areas, like Canada. Brings cold, stable weather in winter. Maritime Tropical (mT) Warm, moist air mass from tropical oceans. Brings humidity and precipitation. Maritime Polar (mP) Cool, moist air mass from high-latitude oceans. Brings cool and rainy weather. Land & Sea Breezes Land Breeze: Occurs at night; land cools faster than the sea, creating high pressure over land and causing wind to flow toward the sea. Sea Breeze: Occurs during the day; land heats faster than the sea, creating low pressure over land and causing wind to flow toward the land. Mountain & Valley Breezes Mountain Breeze: At night, cooler, denser air flows down the mountain slopes into valleys. Valley Breeze: During the day, warm air rises along the slopes, creating an upslope wind. Chinook / Santa Ana Winds Chinook Winds: Warm, dry winds descending the leeward side of mountains, common in the Rockies. Santa Ana Winds: Hot, dry winds in Southern California caused by high pressure inland forcing air toward the coast. GES 101 Exam #3 15  These factors and systems explain how wind operates globally and locally, shaping weather patterns and climate phenomena. Chapter 19: Weather Patterns and Severe Storms Types of Fronts / Front Movements & Associated Weather Fronts are boundaries between two air masses with differing temperature and moisture levels, leading to changes in weather. Warm Fronts Movement: Warm air overtakes cold air, rising gradually over it. Weather: Long-lasting light-to-moderate rain or snow. Ahead of the front: Clouds like cirrus, transitioning to nimbostratus. After the front passes: Warmer temperatures and clearer skies. Cold Fronts Movement: Cold air advances and forces warm air to rise rapidly. Weather: Intense, short-lived storms or heavy precipitation. Rapidly cooling temperatures after the front passes. Cumulonimbus clouds associated with severe thunderstorms. Stationary Fronts Movement: Neither air mass dominates, and the boundary remains stationary. Weather: Prolonged precipitation and cloudiness. Can lead to flooding if persistent. Types, Causes, and Effects of Storms GES 101 Exam #3 16  Thunderstorms Causes: Warm, moist air rising rapidly (convection). Often triggered by a cold front or localized heating. Effects: Lightning, heavy rain, hail, and strong winds. Can cause flash floods, property damage, and power outages. Tornadoes Causes: Form in severe thunderstorms (supercells) when strong updrafts interact with wind shear. A rotating column of air forms and extends to the ground. Effects: Destructive winds (up to 300 mph) cause widespread damage. Can destroy buildings, uproot trees, and threaten lives. Hurricanes Causes: Form over warm ocean waters (≥27°C / 81°F) when moist air rises, creating a low-pressure system. Fueled by latent heat from condensation. Effects: Strong winds, torrential rain, and storm surges. Coastal flooding, erosion, and widespread destruction. Scientific Literature Lindner & Neuhauser Tropical Cyclone Study GES 101 Exam #3 17  Focus: Examines the role of environmental factors (like sea surface temperatures and wind shear) in tropical cyclone formation and intensification. Findings: Highlighted the increasing intensity of cyclones due to warming oceans. Identified regional variations in cyclone behavior linked to atmospheric and oceanic dynamics. Senel et al. Impact Winter Study Focus: Investigated the potential climatic effects of large asteroid impacts. Findings: Dust and aerosols released during impacts can block sunlight, leading to a prolonged cooling period (“impact winter”). Associated effects include reduced agricultural productivity and widespread ecological disruption. These studies emphasize the significance of environmental factors in extreme weather and global climatic events, enriching our understanding of past and future atmospheric phenomena. GES 101 Exam #3 18