Organizational Behavior: Organizational Designs PDF

Organizational Behavior Organizational Designs (5) 1  Organizational Design Decisions  Mechanistic Organization  Organic Organization Struktur yang kaku dan dikontrol Struktur yang sangat fleksibel dan dengan k...

Organizational Behavior Organizational Designs (5) 1  Organizational Design Decisions  Mechanistic Organization  Organic Organization Struktur yang kaku dan dikontrol Struktur yang sangat fleksibel dan dengan ketat (a rigid and tightly controlled mudah beradaptasi (highly flexible and structure) adaptable structure)  High specialization  Non-standardized jobs  Rigid departmentalization  Fluid team-based structure  Narrow spans of control  Little direct supervision  High formalization  Minimal formal rules  Limited information network  Open communication (downward) network  Low decision participation  Empowered employees 2  Structural Contingency Factors  Structural decisions are influenced by:  Overall strategy of the organization  Organizational structure follows strategy.  Size of the organization  Firms change from organic to mechanistic organizations as they grow in size.  Technology use by the organization  Firms adapt their structure to the technology they use.  Degree of environmental uncertainty  Dynamic environments require organic structures; mechanistic structures need stable environments. 3  Structural Contingency Factors (2)  Strategy Frameworks:  Innovation  Mengejar keunggulan kompetitif melalui inovasi yang bermakna dan unik mendukung penataan organik (Pursuing competitive advantage through meaningful and unique innovations favors an organic structuring).  Cost minimization  Mengejar keunggulan kompetitif melalui inovasi yang bermakna dan unik mendukung penataan organik (Focusing on tightly controlling costs requires a mechanistic structure for the organization).  Imitation  Meminimalkan risiko dan memaksimalkan profitabilitas dengan menyalin pemimpin pasar membutuhkan elemen organik dan mekanistik dalam struktur organisasi (Minimizing risks and maximizing profitability by copying market leaders requires both organic and mechanistic elements in the organization’s structure). 4  Structural Contingency Factors (3)  Strategy and Structure  Pencapaian tujuan strategis difasilitasi oleh perubahan struktur organisasi yang mengakomodasi dan mendukung perubahan (Achievement of strategic goals is facilitated by changes in organizational structure that accommodate and support change).  Size and Structure  Pencapaian tujuan strategis difasilitasi oleh perubahan struktur organisasi yang mengakomodasi dan mendukung perubahan (As an organization grows larger, its structure tends to change from organic to mechanistic with increased specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and rules and regulations). 5  Structural Contingency Factors (4)  Technology and Structure  Organizations adapt their structures to their technology.  Woodward’s classification of firms based on the complexity of the technology employed:  Unit production of single units or small batches  Mass production of large batches of output  Process production in continuous process of outputs  Routine technology = mechanistic organizations  Non-routine technology = organic organizations 6  Structural Contingency Factors (5)  Environmental Uncertainty and Structure  Mechanistic organizational structures tend to be most effective in stable and simple environments.  The flexibility of organic organizational structures is better suited for dynamic and complex environments. 7  Organizational Designs  Common Organizational Designs (Traditional Designs)  Simple structure  Low departmentalization, wide spans of control, centralized authority, little formalization  Functional structure  Departmentalization by function: Operations, finance, human resources, and product research and development  Divisional structure  Composed of separate business units or divisions with limited autonomy under the coordination and control the parent corporation. 8  Strengths and Weaknesses of Common Traditional Organizational Designs Figure 10.7 9 A Sample Organization Chart CEO Vice President Vice President Director Finance Manufacturing Human Resources Chief Budget Plant Maintenance Training Benefits Accountant Analyst Superintendent Superintendent Specialist Administrator 10 Structural Design Options for Grouping Employees into Departments Functional Grouping CEO Engineering Marketing Manufacturing Divisional Grouping CEO Product Product Product Division 1 Division 2 Division 3 Source: Adapted from David Nadler and Michael Tushman, Strategic Organization Design (Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1988), 68. 11  Structural Design Options for Grouping Employees (Continued) Multifocused Grouping CEO Marketing Manufacturing Product Division 1 Product Division 2 Source: Adapted from David Nadler and Michael Tushman, Strategic Organization Design (Glenview, Ill.: 12 Scott Foresman, 1988), 68.  Structural Design Options for Grouping Employees (Continued) Horizontal Grouping CEO Human Resources Finance Core Process 1 Core Process 2 Source: Adapted from David Nadler and Michael Tushman, Strategic Organization Design (Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 13 1988), 68.  Geographical Structure for Apple Computer CEO Steve Jobs Apple Apple Apple Apple Products Americas Europe Pacific Canada France Australia Latin America/ Japan Caribbean Sales Asia Service and Marketing to Regions 14 Source: www.apple.com  Project Manager Location in the Structure President Finance Engineering Marketing Purchasing Department Department Department Department Financial Project Manager Accountant Product Market New Designer Researcher Product A Buyer Budget Analyst Draftsperson Advertising Project Manager Specialist New Buyer Product B Management Accountant Electrical Project Manager Designer Market New Planner Buyer Product C 15 Dual-Authority Structure in a Matrix Organization President Director Design Mfg Marketing Procure- of Product Vice Vice Vice Controller ment Operations President President President Manager Product Manager A Product Manager B Product Manager C Product Manager D 16  Strengths and Weaknesses of Matrix Organization Structure  STRENGTHS:  WEAKNESSES:  Mencapai koordinasi yang diperlukan  Menyebabkan peserta mengalami otoritas untuk memenuhi tuntutan ganda dari ganda, yang bisa membuat frustasi dan pelanggan (Achieves coordination necessary to meet membingungkan (Causes participants to experience dual demands from customers). dual authority, which can be frustrating and confusing)  Berbagi sumber daya manusia secara  Mungkin peserta membutuhkan fleksibel di seluruh produk (Flexible sharing keterampilan interpersonal yang baik dan of human resources across products) pelatihan ekstensif (Means participants need good  Cocok untuk keputusan yang kompleks interpersonal skills and extensive training) dan perubahan yang sering terjadi dalam  Mungkin memakan waktu; Melibatkan lingkungan yang tidak stabil (Suited to pertemuan yang sering dan sesi resolusi complex decisions and frequent changes in unstable konflik (Is time consuming; involves frequent meetings environment) and conflict resolution sessions)  Memberikan kesempatan untuk  Tidak akan berhasil kecuali peserta pengembangan keterampilan fungsional memahaminya dan mengadopsi hubungan dan produk (Provides opportunity for both kolegial daripada tipe vertical (Will not work functional and product skill development) unless participants understand it and adopt collegial  Best in medium-sized organizations with rather than vertical-type relationships) multiple products  Membutuhkan upaya besar untuk menjaga keseimbangan daya (Requires great effort to maintain power balance) Source: Adapted from Robert Duncan, “What Is the Right 17 Organization Structure? Decision Tree Analysis Provides the Answer,”Organizational Dynamics (Winter 1979): 429.  Matrix Structure for Worldwide Steel Company President Vertical Functions Mfg. Industrial Mfg. Marketing Finance Metallurgy Field Sales Services Relations Vice Vice Vice Vice Vice Vice Vice President President President President President Horizontal Product Lines President President Open Die Business Mgr. Ring Products Business Mgr. Wheels & Axles Business Mgr. Steelmaking Business Mgr. 18  Organizational Designs (2)  Contemporary Organizational Designs  Team structures  Seluruh organisasi terdiri dari kelompok kerja atau tim yang dikelola sendiri dari karyawan yang diberdayakan (The entire organization is made up of work groups or self-managed teams of empowered employees).  Matrix and project structures  Spesialis untuk departemen fungsional yang berbeda ditugaskan untuk mengerjakan proyek yang dipimpin oleh manajer proyek (Specialists for different functional departments are assigned to work on projects led by project managers).  Peserta matriks memiliki dua manajer (Matrix participants have two managers).  Project structures  Karyawan bekerja terus menerus pada proyek; pindah ke proyek lain karena setiap proyek selesai (Employees work continuously on projects; moving on to another project as each project is completed). 19  A Matrix Organization in an Aerospace Firm 20  Organizational Designs (3)  Contemporary Organizational Designs (cont’d)  Boundaryless Organization  Desain organisasi yang fleksibel dan tidak terstruktur yang dimaksudkan untuk memecah hambatan eksternal antara organisasi dan pelanggan dan pemasoknya (An flexible and unstructured organizational design that is intended to break down external barriers between the organization and its customers and suppliers).  Menghapus batas internal---horizontal---[Removes internal (horizontal) boundaries]:  Eliminates the chain of command  Has limitless spans of control  Uses empowered teams rather than departments  Menghilangkan batas eksternal (Eliminates external boundaries):  Uses virtual, network, and modular organizational structures to get closer to stakeholders. 21  Removing Boundaries  Virtual Organization  Sebuah organisasi yang terdiri dari inti kecil karyawan penuh waktu dan yang sementara mempekerjakan spesialis untuk bekerja pada peluang yang muncul (An organization that consists of a small core of full-time employees and that temporarily hires specialists to work on opportunities that arise).  Network Organization  Suatu organisasi inti kecil yang mengalihdayakan fungsi bisnis utamanya (misalnya, manufaktur) untuk memusatkan apa yang terbaiknya (A small core organization that outsources its major business functions (e.g., manufacturing) in order to concentrate what it does best).  Modular Organization  Organisasi manufaktur yang menggunakan pemasok luar untuk menyediakan komponen produk untuk operasi perakitan akhir (A manufacturing organization that uses outside suppliers to provide product components for its final assembly operations). 22  Organizational Designs (4)  The Learning Organization Organisasi yang telah mengembangkan kapasitas untuk terus belajar, beradaptasi, dan berubah melalui praktik manajemen pengetahuan oleh karyawan (An organization that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change through the practice of knowledge management by employees).  Characteristics of a learning organization:  An open team-based organization design that empowers employees  Extensive and open information sharing  Leadership that provides a shared vision of the organization’s future, support and encouragement  A strong culture of shared values, trust, openness, and a sense of community. 23  Characteristics of a Learning Organization 24  The Relationship of Organization Design to Efficiency vs. Learning Outcomes Horizontal Organization Designed for Learning Horizontal structure is dominant Shared tasks, empowerment Relaxed hierarchy, few rules Horizontal, face-to-face communication Many teams and task forces Dominant Decentralized decision making Structural Vertical structure is dominant Specialized tasks Approach Strict hierarchy, many rules Vertical communication and reporting systems Few teams, task forces or integrators Centralized decision making Vertical Organization Designed for Efficiency 25  Parameters of Managerial Discretion Exhibit 3.1 26  The Management: Omnipotent or Symbolic?  Omnipotent View of Management  Manajemen secara langsung bertanggung jawab atas keberhasilan atau kegagalan organisasi (Management is directly responsible for an organization’s success or failure).  Kualitas organisasi ditentukan oleh kualitas manajemennya (The quality of the organization is determined by the quality of its management).  Manajemen dianggap paling bertanggung jawab atas kinerja organisasi namun sulit untuk menghubungkan kinerja yang baik atau buruk secara langsung dengan pengaruhnya terhadap organisasi (Management is held most accountable for an organization’s performance yet it is difficult to attribute good or poor performance directly to their influence on the organization). 27  The Manager: Omnipotent or Symbolic?  Pandangan Simbolik Manajemen (SymbolicView of Management)  Sebagian besar keberhasilan atau kegagalan organisasi disebabkan oleh kekuatan eksternal di luar kendali manajemen (Much of an organization’s success or failure is due to external forces outside of management’s control).  Kemampuan manajemen untuk menentukan hasil dipengaruhi dan dibatasi oleh faktor-faktor eksternal (The ability of management to affect outcomes is influenced and constrained by external factors).  Ekonomi, pelanggan, kebijakan pemerintah, pesaing, kondisi industri, teknologi, dan tindakan manajer sebelumnya (The economy, customers, governmental policies, competitors, industry conditions, technology, and the actions of previous managers)  Manajemen melambangkan kontrol dan pengaruh melalui tindakan mereka (Management symbolizes control and influence through their action). 28