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3. The Delhi Sultanate Turkish Conquest of North India In the eleventh century AD, most of the rulers in North India were weak. Taking advantage of this, Sultan Mahmud, who ruled Ghazni from AD 998 to 1030, invaded India. Between 1000 and...

3. The Delhi Sultanate Turkish Conquest of North India In the eleventh century AD, most of the rulers in North India were weak. Taking advantage of this, Sultan Mahmud, who ruled Ghazni from AD 998 to 1030, invaded India. Between 1000 and 1027, he raided India 17 times. During the raids he plundered and destroyed palaces, temples and cities. The famous Somnath Temple in Kathiawar was among the temples he plundered. Mahmud brought Punjab and parts of Sind under his rule. Alberuni, a great Persian scholar, had accompanied Mahmud to India. He mastered Sanskrit and translated some Sanskrit texts into Arabic. He also wrote a book on India. Muhammad Ghori’s Invasions In 1173, Ghazni was annexed by the Ghorid dynasty based at Ghor in Afghanistan. A Ghorid ruler named Muhammad Ghori decided to expand his empire into India. By 1190, Muhammad Ghori’s territories included Punjab and Sind. At this time, Prithviraj Chauhan III of Ajmer and Delhi was the most powerful Rajput ruler of North India. He wanted to control Punjab. This led to two wars between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan on the battlefield of Tarain, near Delhi. In the first battle, fought in 1191, Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori. In the second battle, in 1192, Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj, who was later killed. Muhammad Ghori occupied Delhi and Ajmer, and in 1194, he defeated the ruler of Benaras and Kanauj. After this Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghor, leaving his Indian territories in the charge of his trusted slave and able general Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate Between 1194 and 1206, Qutb-ud-din Aibak and other Turkish generals conquered the Ganga–Yamuna Doab, Aligarh, Kalinjar, Bihar and Bengal. After Muhammad Ghori’s death in 1206, Qutb-ud-din proclaimed himself sultan of the Turkish territories in India. He made Delhi his capital, and thus founded the Delhi Sultanate.  22 Essential ICSE History and Civics for Class 7 Between 1206 and 1526, the Delhi Sultanate had five dynasties—the Slave, Khalji and Tughluq dynasties of Turkish origin, and the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties of Afghan origin. Delhi—the capital  Dhillika (Delhi) was possibly built by the Tomaras around the year 736. Visaldeo, a Chauhan ruler of the twelfth century, captured the city from the Tomaras. Under the Tomaras and the Chauhans, Delhi grew into a very important administrative centre in North India. Because of Delhi’s strategic location, most of the sultans established Delhi as their capital city. Slave or Mamluk Dynasty (1206–90) Qutb-ud-din Aibak was originally Muhammad Ghori’s slave. Hence, the dynasty established by him is called the Slave or Mamluk dynasty (mamluk means slave or son of a slave). The approximate locations of cities built by the sultans in and around modern Delhi The Qutb Minar, begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, was completed by Iltutmish. Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–10) Qutb-ud-din was a generous ruler and a great builder. He built India’s oldest mosque—the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi. He also built the mosque Arhai Din ka Jhunpra at Ajmer and began the construction of the Qutb Minar in Delhi. Qutb-ud-din died in 1210. Iltutmish (1211–36) Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s son-in-law Iltutmish ascended the throne in 1211. Iltutmish stabilised the Delhi Sultanate. He either crushed his rivals or won them over with land grants. He also suppressed rebellions. In 1221, Iltutmish refused shelter to the ruler of Iran, who had been ousted by the Mongol chief Chenghiz Khan. This wise move saved India from a Mongol attack. Iltutmish organised a group of powerful Turkish nobles, called Chalisa  The Delhi Sultanate 23 (The Forty), to overcome his enemies. He introduced an efficient system for collecting land revenue and reorganised the currency of the Sultanate. He completed the construction of the Qutb Minar. He also built a mosque at Badaun and his own tomb of red sandstone at Delhi. After Iltutmish, his daughter Raziyya ruled until she was murdered in 1240. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266–87) After several weak rulers, Ghiyas-ud- The Hauz-i-Shamsi, a water storage tank built by Iltutmish near Delhi din Balban, a powerful member of the Chalisa, became Sultan in 1266. Balban crushed the Chalisa and displayed his power by introducing strict discipline in his court. He introduced the Persian custom of zaminbos, that is, lying flat on one’s face before the emperor to show respect. Balban restored law and order, reorganised the army and maintained an efficient spy system. He suppressed a revolt in Bengal and fortified his frontiers to guard against possible Mongol attacks. He died in 1287. Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320) The Khalji dynasty was established by Jalal-ud-din Firoz in 1290. In 1296, Jalal-ud-din’s nephew Ala-ud-din murdered him and proclaimed himself sultan. Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316) Ala-ud-din Khalji was the ablest ruler of the Khalji dynasty. Conquests  Ala-ud-din established a vast empire. He conquered Gujarat, which gave him access to its ports. Foreign trade through these ports ensured the import of horses for the army. Ala-ud-din also conquered Ranthambhor, Marwar, Mewar and Malwa. According to legend, he attacked Chittor, the capital of Mewar, to capture Padmini, the beautiful queen of Mewar’s ruler Ratan Singh. Ala-ud-din sent his commander Malik Kafur to bring the rich states of the Deccan under his control. By 1313, the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai had all accepted Ala-ud-din’s overlordship. For a brief period, Ala-ud-din ruled almost the whole of India, with Malik Kafur as his vice- regent (deputy). Mongol raids  Ala-ud-din built new forts and repaired old ones along the north-western frontiers. His able generals drove back the Mongol raiders, who raided India several times during his reign. Ala-ud-din’s policies and contributions  Ala-ud-din was the first Delhi sultan to maintain a well-equipped standing army. He paid his soldiers in cash and supplied them with imported 24 Essential ICSE History and Civics for Class 7 horses of good breed. The horses were branded with the royal insignia to prevent theft. A detailed description of each soldier was kept to prevent substitution. Ala-ud-din had land reassessed, and fixed new rates of revenue. Surplus grains were stored in granaries to meet natural crises like famines and floods. Ala-ud-din fixed the prices of all items of daily use. Weights and measures were standardised, and cheating was severely punished. These measures benefited the people. Ala-ud-din built a new city called Siri and a reservoir called the Hauz Khas, now in Delhi. He also added a madarsa (Muslim educational institution, also called madrasa) and the Alai Darwaza to the Qutb group of monuments at Mehrauli, Delhi. The renowned scholar and musician Amir Khusrau adorned his court.  The Delhi Sultanate 25 Remains of the Tughluqabad Fort built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Tughluq Dynasty (1320–1412) The Tughluq dynasty was started by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq in 1320. Ghiyas-ud-din was a just and efficient ruler. He suppressed revolts and repelled a Mongol invasion. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (1325–51) In 1325, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq was succeeded by his son Jauna Khan, who took the title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. Ibn Batutah, a traveller from Tangier, North Africa, has left an interesting account of Muhammad-bin Tughluq’s reign. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq had received education in literature, religion and philosophy. He composed verses in Persian and Arabic. He laid stress on merit, and even raised people of humble origins to high positions. This offended many of the nobles, who refused to cooperate with him. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq made grand plans, but they were never carried Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq’s tomb, out properly. where Muhammad-bin-Tughluq is also buried 26 Essential ICSE History and Civics for Class 7 Shift of capital  Muhammad-bin-Tughluq decided to shift his capital to a place safe from Mongol attacks. He chose Daulatabad in the Deccan. He built a road to help officials and nobles from Delhi to shift to the new capital. But, when he realised that the north-western frontiers could not be controlled from Daulatabad, he shifted the capital back to Delhi. This caused heavy financial loss and great hardship to the people. After shifting back to Delhi, the sultan lost control over the Deccan, where the Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms arose. Campaigns  Muhammad-bin-Tughluq planned a military campaign in Central Asia. But, he failed to carry it out after spending heavily on the arrangements. He undertook an ill-planned campaign in Tibet, which caused a heavy loss of life. Taxation  To meet the expenses of the army, the sultan increased land tax in the Ganga– Yamuna Doab. Many farmers rose in rebellion. They were crushed, but large areas were laid waste, resulting in a famine. The sultan had to provide six months’ supplies from the royal granary at cheap rates. Peasants had to be given loans to restore cultivation. Token currency  Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was impressed with the paper currency introduced in China. So, to overcome a shortage of silver in India, he introduced bronze token coins of the same value as silver coins. The sultan, however, failed to check forgery of the bronze coins. The value of the currency fell sharply, and heaps of bronze coins were discarded on the streets of the capital. Trade suffered as foreign merchants stopped business. The sultan had to withdraw the token currency and pay genuine gold coins in exchange for the forged coins. Thus, the experiment caused a heavy loss to the treasury. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s unsuccessful experiments lowered his prestige. Revolts broke out in many parts of his empire and provinces began to break away. Muhammad-bin- Tughluq died in 1351. Firoz Tughluq (1351–88) Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Tughluq. Firoz could neither suppress revolts nor win back the provinces that had broken away. He inherited an empty treasury, and the nobles had turned hostile. To win over the nobles, Firoz made the posts and land rights of civil and army officials hereditary. To please the ulemas (Muslim religious heads) he imposed the jiziya, a special tax to be paid by non-Muslims. Reforms   Firoz wrote off a number of loans, abolished certain taxes and reduced the rates of land revenue. He promoted agriculture by ordering the digging of wells and the construction of irrigation canals like the Yamuna Canal. However, he imposed a tax on the use of Ashokan pillar on the ruins of Kotla Firoz Shah irrigation water from state canals.  The Delhi Sultanate 27 Commerce improved as Firoz removed taxes on the movement of goods. The condition of the artisans improved with the establishment of karkhanas, or workshops. Free medical care was given to the poor. Firoz as a builder  Firoz built many towns such as Jaunpur and Firozpur. These towns had hospitals, libraries, mosques and palaces. Firoz had two Ashokan pillars brought from Khizrabad and Meerut to decorate his fort Kotla Firoz Shah, now in Delhi. Patron of learning  Firoz built madarsas to promote learning. He had many Sanskrit texts translated into Persian. After Firoz’s death in 1388, the Sultanate rapidly declined. Many states broke away. Timur’s Invasion Timur Lang (Timur the Lame) was the ruler of Samarkand in Central Asia. He invaded India in 1398 and occupied some territories in the north-west. When he reached Delhi, he faced resistance from the people. They were massacred on his orders. On his way back, he plundered many cities and carried away enormous wealth. He also took along skilled artisans to work on monuments in Samarkand. Timur left an Afghan chief named Khizr Khan in charge of his Indian territories. The Tughluqs could not recover their power after Timur’s invasion. Their dynasty ended in 1412. In 1414, Khizr Khan occupied Delhi. He established the Sayyid Timur dynasty, which lasted till 1451. Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526) The Lodis were Afghan tribesmen, who had entered India during Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s reign. In 1451, Bahlul Lodi founded the Lodi dynasty. He extended Lodi rule from Punjab to the western borders of Bihar. Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517) Bahlul Lodi was succeeded by his able son Sikandar Lodi. Sikandar brought the nobles under control, tightened the spy system, promoted agriculture, regulated market prices and gave justice The Lodis built tombs in gardens. The Mughals later adopted this style. The tomb pictured above was possibly built during Sikandar Lodi’s reign. to all. 28 Essential ICSE History and Civics for Class 7 Sikandar was a patron of art and learning, and even composed verses in Persian. He founded the city of Agra, which became his capital. He died in Agra in 1517. Ibrahim Lodi (1517–26) Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi. At this time, Rana Sanga, the ruler of Mewar, had extended his territories up to Bayana near Agra. This endangered the Lodi empire. There was a rebellion in Bihar, too. Ibrahim Lodi replaced senior commanders with young, loyal leaders. This displeased many of the nobles. Daulat Khan, the governor of Punjab, wanted to overthrow Ibrahim Lodi. He sought the help of Babur, a Central Asian chief. Babur invaded India and defeated Ibrahim in 1526 on the battlefield of Panipat. Thus, the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate came to an end. Thereafter, Babur established the Mughal Empire in India. Causes for the Decline of the Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate, which lasted for more than three hundred years (1206 to 1526), was vast and required strong rulers to keep it under control. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s projects caused widespread disturbance and misery among the people. This led to several rebellions, and various regions both in the north and south broke away to establish independent kingdoms. The Sultanate rulers depended heavily on military might to control the empire. Their policies were always guided by the needs of the army and not by the needs of the people. The rulers who came after Muhammad-bin-Tughluq alienated large sections of the people by imposing jaziya on non-Muslims. The later rulers made official positions and land rights hereditary, which in the long run created a group of self-seeking, powerful nobles who hatched court conspiracies, especially during the reigns of weak rulers. Timur’s invasion gave a lasting blow to the already weakened empire. At the same time, the inability of the Sultanate to maintain control over the southern provinces resulted in the establishment of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms. A weak Sultanate attracted invasion by the Mughals, and it finally collapsed after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate: a comparison Khalji dynasty Tughluq dynasty Lodi dynasty (1290–1320) (1320–1412) (1451–1526) Mongol policy Ala-ud-din Khalji Muhammad-bin-Tughluq overcame Mongol shifted capital from Delhi raids; built new forts to Daulatabad and back; and repaired old ones organised failed military campaigns into Central Asia and Tibet.