Conservation of Biodiversity Notes PDF

12/5/2024 Significant ideas: Significant ideas: 1) The impact of losing biodiversity drives conservation 1. The variety of arguments given for the conservation of...

12/5/2024 Significant ideas: Significant ideas: 1) The impact of losing biodiversity drives conservation 1. The variety of arguments given for the conservation of efforts. biodiversity will depend on EVSs. 2. There are various approaches to the conservation of biodiversity, each with associated strengths and limitations. The mountain gorillas live in Virunga mountain ranges, which are shared by Volcanoes National park in Rwanda, Mgahinga National park in Uganda and Virunga national park in DR Congo. Among the critical threats listed are poaching, civil wars, illegal animal trade, human infectious diseases, habitat loss and fragmentation that significantly reduced gorilla numbers. Fortunately, gorilla tourism as one of the strategies to conserve gorillas slowly started to convince people living around gorilla national parks through community development projects and supportive relationships to change from poaching, encroachment to community conservation EVSs – Environmental Value Systems 1 2 Big Questions: Big Questions: 1. To what extent have the solutions emerging from this 1. In what ways might the solutions explored in this topic topic been directed at preventing environmental alter your predictions for the state of human societies impacts, limiting the extent of the environmental and the biosphere some decades from now? impacts, or restoring systems in which environmental 2. How do different conservation measures (e.g. in situ and impacts have already occurred? ex situ) prevent environmental impacts, limit the extent 2. What value systems can you identify at play in the of the environmental impacts, or restore systems in causes and approaches to resolving the issues addressed which environmental impacts have already occurred? in this topic? 3. How would a technocentric view of biodiversity differ 3. How does your own value system compare with others from an ecocentric one? How do different EVSs affect you have encountered in the context of issues raised in approaches to conservation? this topic? 3 4 Understandings Big Questions: Statement Guidance 1. If you are from a MEDC, how would your EVSs differ 3.4.U1 Arguments about species and habitat preservation can be based on aesthetic, from that of someone from a LEDC, or from someone ecological, economic, ethical and social justifications. who relies on the preservation of natural ecosystems for 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non- survival? governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and 2. Do you think that the conservation measures being biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, taken today will be sufficient of preserve the Earth’s diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence. biodiversity for the future? 3.4U3 Recent international conventions on biodiversity work to create collaboration between nations for biodiversity conservation 3.4U4 Conservation approaches include habitat conservation, species-based conservation and a More Economically Developed Country mixed approach. Less Economically Developed Country 5 6 1  12/5/2024 Understandings Applications and Skills Statement Guidance Statement Guidance 3.4.A1 Explain the criteria used to design and manage 3.4.U5 Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas. protected areas include size, shape, edge effects, corridors, and proximity to potential human 3.4.A2 Evaluate the success of a given protected area. influence 3.4.A3 Evaluate different approaches to protecting 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of biodiversity. protected areas are species-based conservation strategies including: – CITES – captive breeding and reintroduction programmes, and zoos – selection of “charismatic” species to help protect others in an area (flagship species) – selection of keystone species to protect the integrity of the food web. 3.4U7 Community support, adequate funding and proper research influence the success of conservation efforts. 3.4U8 The location of a conservation area in a country is a significant factor in the success of the conservation effort. Surrounding land use for the conservation area and distance from urban centres are important factors for consideration in conservation area design. 7 8 The impact of losing biodiversity drives conservation efforts 3.4.U1 Arguments about species and habitat preservation can be based on aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and social justifications. Differing values of Direct value biodiversity Food sources – we eat other spceis of plants and aminals Natural products – many medicines, fertilizers and pesticides we use are derived provide different from plants and animals motivations for its Economic - Food, Industry, lumber, rubber, oil, medicines ($100 billion/year), ecotourism conservation Indirect values Scientific and educational value Why conserve Aesthetic – Beauty and inspiration derived from looking at diverse species and biodiversity? habitats Ethical – Bio rights (all species have equal rights to live) as well as obligations to future generations Remember Topic Genetic - Diversity of gene pool ensures future variety of life. Needed for stable ecosystems (disease/natural selection) 1.1 Social-Habitats provide homes, work, resources, and social cohesion for indigenous people Ecological- Nutrient cycling , water purification, pollination, CO2 removal , flood control, rare and/or endemic species may be lost 9 10 3.4.U1 Arguments about species and habitat preservation can be The variety of arguments given for the conservation of biodiversity based on aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and social will depend on EVSs justifications. Ethical arguments Do you think the data Usually very broad. shown at the right would Rely on people believing these best support conservation species have an intrinsic value or arguments from a taking a utilitarian approach. A poacher can make almost £10000 from the tusks of an technocentric, Intrinsic value – the value a species has within its own right (as opposed to the adult male elephant; the anthropocentric or value it can give). average annual salary in ecocentric perspective? Utilitarianism – taking the best moral Kenya is around £612. action that maximises It is very easy for us in a happiness/minimises suffering to Justify your response with sentient entities. developed country to judge reference to ESS Topic 1 people in developing countries who are doing How to do we change people things we consider evil. opinions? http://www.grida.no/resources/6948 11 12 2  12/5/2024 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence IGOs, GOs, NGOs Intergovernmental organisations E.g the UN, UNEP IPCC Governmental organisations E.g Environment agency Non-governmental organisations Caution!! Watch out for E.g. Friends of the Earth GREENWASH- organizations that give the impression that they have changed over to sustainable practices when in fact they have done nothing 13 14 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental Desk-based organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring Using the logos: 1) Which organisation is it from? research ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness 2) Is it an IGO, GO or NGO? due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic 3) What are its main aims? constraints, financial resources and political influence Conservative 4) How does it accomplish these Radical aims? 5) Which are Ecocentric? Technocentric? Anthropocentric? Some NGOs leverage 6) Place the organisations onto the their financial axis to the right. resources to In the field maximize the effectiveness of their conservation efforts Others get less bang for their buck as seen here http://www.haitianinternet.com/photos/photo-haiti-ngo-class.html 15 16 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence constraints, financial resources and political influence IUCN IGO and GO NGO The IUCN Red List Statements written by officers and Graphic/shocking footage to gain claims to be “the clerks. media attention. Works alongside official media Mobilise public protests to attract world’s most outlets. attention. comprehensive Effective use of social media to information source of spread message. the global Sabotage events with high media conservation status of coverage animal, fungi and plant Both publish scientific reports species” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soxlqX5U2iQ Sea Shepherd: Radical protesters risk their lives to stop Japan's whaling industry SeaShepherd: https://www.youtube.com/@Sea.Shepherd https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nXndQuvOacU Greenpeace VW: The Dark Side https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMfako9JNpE Banners for Save the Arctic (dot) org in Belgium 17 18 3  12/5/2024 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence constraints, financial resources and political influence IGO and GO NGO IGO and GO NGO Considerable - often Generally unaffected by hindered by political political constraints Considered and slow Can be rapid. disagreement (different Can even include illegal (bureaucratic). Member only join if they cultural opinions and activity. May go against public share opinions, so little motives) Driven by what is best for opinion so many views need deliberation. Decisions can be politically conservation – can lead to to be considered. Little consideration of the driven rather than by best extreme actions. status quo. conservation strategy. E.g. voting in the IWC https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wD3AoDAV-rA Operation GrindStop (International Whaling 2014: Sea Shepherd Helps Pilot Whales Back Out to Sea Commission) 19 20 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence constraints, financial resources and political influence Public image Enforcement IGO AND GO NGO Organized as businesses with Can be IGO and GO NGO concrete allocation of duties confrontational/radical Cultivate a approach to an International agreements No legal power – use of serious/upright/measured environmental issue like and national or regional persuasion and public opinion image based on biodiversity laws can lead to to pressure governments scientific/business like prosecution approaches Both lead and encourage partnership between nations and organizations to conserve and restore ecosystems and biodiversity 21 22 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence constraints, financial resources and political influence Agenda IGO AND GO NGO IGO AND GO NGO Enforce their decision by Serve as watchdogs (suing Provide guidelines and Use public pressure to legislation government agencies and implement national treaties influence national businesses who violate governments/ lobby environmental law) governments over policies and legislation Both seek to ensure that decisions are applied Buy and manage land to protect habitat, wildlife, etc. Both may collaborate in global, transnational scientific research projects, both may provide forum for discussion 23 24 4  12/5/2024 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental 3.4.U2 International, governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring organizations (NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness ecosystems and biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic due to their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence constraints, financial resources and political influence Funding Extent of influence geographically IGO and GO NGO IGO and GO NGO Global or national in extent Focus more on local and/or Potentially very large Manage publicly owned Countries can be fined/shunned national information, aiming at budgets (Highly variable) lands. for breaking international rules. education, producing learning Funded by national budgets Private donations. materials and opportunities for (taxes) Can be funded by schools and public Often relies on companies, governments or disruptive/embarrassment political parties (however techniques to cause change. some explicitly refuse this). 25 26 3.4.U3 Recent international conventions on biodiversity work to create collaboration between nations for biodiversity conservation. CITES - Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/wildlife-crime/module-2/key-issues/cites-and-the-international-trade-in- endangered-species.html#:~:text=CoP17)-,Appendix%20I,be%20authorized%20in%20exceptional %20circumstances. 27 28 3.4.U3 Recent international conventions on biodiversity work to create collaboration between nations for biodiversity conservation. WCC – World Conservation Strategy commissioned by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) which together with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) provided the financial support for its preparation and contributed to the evolution of its basic themes and structure https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/wildlife-crime/module-2/key-issues/cites-and-the-international-trade-in- endangered-species.html#:~:text=CoP17)-,Appendix%20I,be%20authorized%20in%20exceptional% 20circumstances. 29 30 5  12/5/2024 3.4.U3 Recent international conventions on biodiversity work to create collaboration between nations for biodiversity conservation. Conservation Milestones CBD – Convention of Biological Diversity There are going to be a list of dates and what happened. DO NOT write them all down. convention on biodiversity extends CITES to conserve biodiversity in general 172 countries You do not need to know the dates or exact events. Focused on reversing trends in loss of biodiversity You do need an idea of how the world comes together to elicit change and how effective these interventions have been. You must read p. 187-189 to get the full story 31 32 Conservation Milestones at a glance Conservation Milestones 1980 – World Conservation Strategy 2000 – UN Millennium Summit: Millennium Development Goals. Published by IUCN/UNEP/WWF (joint force) Maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems; World leaders agreed on set of time bound and measurable goals. Preserve genetic diversity; Many issues including poverty/hunger/gender equality. Ensure sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems. 2005 – World Summit, New York. Outlined global priorities and 1991 – Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living recommended each country prepare a national strategy for the Stated benefits of sustainable use of natural resources and sharing resources conservation of natural resources. more equally. 2010 – In 2001 EU heads of state agreed to halt biodiversity decline 1992 – Rio Earth Summit – Agenda 21 (sustainable development by 2010. They failed. agenda) 2013 – Rio+20. How to build a green economy. Resulted in non- Conservation of biological variation binding paper “The future we want”. Sustainable use of its components Equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. 33 34 3.4.U4 Conservation approaches include habitat conservation, species-based conservation and a mixed approach. Three main approaches : 1. Species based 2. Habitat based 3. A mixture of both More successful when it involves: Research Adequate funding Support of the local community 35 36 6  12/5/2024 3.4.U4 Conservation approaches include habitat conservation, species-based conservation and a mixed approach. Ecotone (marsh/mangrove) Key Terms Corridors- Strips of land that link reserves together Edge Effect: More Ecotone- where two habitats meet near a Species Can Be found boundary here at the ecotone! Edge effect- occurs at ecotones because more species are present from the two habitats (increased resources) Protected cares - Can be thought of as islands within the surrounding landscape. The success and effectiveness of protected areas depends on several factors. 37 38 3.4.U5 Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas 3.4.U5 Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas include size, shape, edge effect, corridors, and proximity to include size, shape, edge effect, corridors, and proximity to potential human influence potential human influence Size: (SLOSS) Single Large or Several Small - How large should area be? Large is better than small One large or many small areas? More habitats More species How many individuals must be protected? More niches Reduce Edge Effect More varied Shape: What is the best shape? Supports larger populations Proximity: How close together? Ideal for large mammals and apex predators Corridors: Reserves Joined or separated? Less edge effect 39 40 3.4.U5 Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas 3.4.U5 Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas include size, shape, edge effect, corridors, and proximity to include size, shape, edge effect, corridors, and proximity to potential human influence potential human influence Shape and size Corridor in Wildlife Reserve A wildlife corridor is a link of wildlife habitat, generally native vegetation, which joins two or more larger areas of similar wildlife habitat. Corridors are critical for the maintenance of ecological processes including allowing for the movement of animals and the continuation of viable populations Benefits include: Gene flow – emigration and immigration Seasonal movement Reduces collisions between cars and animals Reducing roads which act as barriers Disadvantages include: Invasion of exotic pests or diseases https://www.ncwildlife.org/Conserving/Programs/Green-Growth-Toolbox/Conservation- Poachers can easily move from one Recommendations/Conserve_and_Manage reserve to another could become barriers to some species Could have increased edge effects 41 42 7  12/5/2024 3.4.U5 Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas 3.4.A1 Explain the criteria used to design and manage protected include size, shape, edge effect, corridors, and proximity to areas potential human influence Wildlife Reserves Design Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB) Buffer zone Created in 1970 Areas around conservation World network of international reserves areas. They contain habitats 500 reserves in over 100 countries that may be managed or undisturbed. Minimize disturbance from outside like people, agriculture or invasion http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/ 43 44 3.4.A1 Explain the criteria used to design and manage protected Habitat-based conservation areas Better Worse Large is preferable to small because more habitats and species are included and populations are bigger, ideal for large mammals. 1. Explain: tell why each criterion is important: There is less edge effect. 2. Shape One large is preferable to 3. Size several small because 4. Edge populations are bigger. There is less edge effect. 5. Human proximity Designing 6. Community buy-in a protected Close better than isolated; easier to disperse among patches, allows area easier recolonization in case local patch loses all individuals Clumped better than in a row, shorter distance to other reserves. Corridors are preferable to not connected, facilitates migration Round better than any other shape because there is less edge effect. Poaching is reduced. 45 46 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas are species-based conservation strategies including: areas are species-based conservation strategies including: CITES In situ Conservation of species in their natural habitat Conservation of International trade in endangered species (CITES) Natural parks, natural reserves Reduced trade in endangered species Voluntary international agreement therefore it is inconsistent enforcement Ex situ Species covered by CITES are listed according to the degree of protection Conserving species in isolation of their natural habitat they need (Appendix I, II or III) International trade is limited and controlled through a licensing system Zoos, botanical gardens All import export, re-export and introduction must be authorized “Aww that’s so cute! I want one!” Shocking Undercover Scenes: Illegal http://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-c-ecology-and-conser/c4-conservation-of-biodiver/conservation.html Animal Trade - Indian Ocean With Simon Reeve – BBC 47 48 8  12/5/2024 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas are species-based conservation strategies including: areas are species-based conservation strategies including: captive breeding captive breeding Since then zoos and aquaria have had to justify their existence. Captive breeding This usually takes the form of captive breeding and funding conservation alongside education. Ex situ strategy Often at zoos 1. Research a successful reintroduction programme. e.g. Cost-intensive so mostly for MEDCs Black-footed ferret. What species was involved? It is for the business or for conservation? Why was it successful? Without habitat conservation, how effective is What were the opinions of the local communities? it? 2. Why are reintroductions from captive bred populations so difficult? https://www.calacademy.org/press/releases/three-new-penguin-chicks-join-african-penguin-exhibit 3. Explain the concept of a frozen zoo. 49 50 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas are species-based conservation strategies including: areas are species-based conservation strategies including: botanical gardens and seed banks reintroduction Reintroduction Kew Gardens (in London) is the largest botanical garden in the Reintroduction of the Mexican Gray Wolf in Arizona. world; it contains 25000 plant species (10% of the world’s total) Sone successes with the California condor but generally Seed banks are where seeds are stored, frozen and dry, for many challenging years. Individuals become habituated to humans Global Seed Vault in Svalbard – secured seed bank, to act as a Loss of instincts for hunting/foraging insurance against loss of other seed banks. No power needed. What if habitat loss is one of the major threats? Then what? http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jan/18/nation/la-na-nn-arizona-mexican-wolf-20130118 51 52 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas are species-based conservation strategies including: areas are species-based conservation strategies including: flagship species keystone species Flagship – charismatic/famous Tend to be cute, cuddly, and/or iconic Critical role in maintaining the structure of the ecosystem it lives in. Often large mammals at or near top of trophic levels Disappearance of this species could cause the disappearance of many others. Useful for media and fundraising If conservation is to be successful these species must be identified. Do not confuse with keystone species Often engineers (e.g. beavers) that create habitats or Project integrity of the food web small predators Fulfill essential niches (e.g. sea otters) that Not necessarily top trophic levels keep herbivore numbers low enough that producers can survive. http://lugezi.com/images/ 53 54 9  12/5/2024 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas are species-based conservation strategies including: Strengths Weaknesses Focus on 1 at a time Species do not exist in isolation Media- High profile species captures Media doesn’t like unglamorous organisms attention More research Research needs the context of whole environment Focus on species diversity Ignores community and ecosystem biodiversity Breeding, reintroduction, zoo programs Doesn’t ensure protection of habitat Only need key species How do you decide on key species? 55 56 The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach 3.4.U6 Alternative approaches to the development of protected Goal Goall areas are species-based conservation strategies including: Protect species from Protect populations of premature extinction species in their natural habitats Strengths Weaknesses Tourism & recreation – use promotes More interactions with people – more Strategies Strategy interest damage potentially Identify endangered Preserve sufficient areas “Sexy megafauna” get public interested in People may overlook the deeper values species of habitats in different biomes and aquatic conserving whole habitats Protect their critical systems habitats Personal approach appeals to people Research needs the context of whole “Save the manatee environment Organisms safe from poachers It is artificial Tactics Tactics Legally protect Protect habitat areas endangered species through private purchase or government action Artificial insemination possible Organisms not born in the wild may not be Manage habitat Eliminate or reduce able to survive reintroduction Propagate endangered populations of alien species in captivity species from protected areas Cross fostering is possible – raised by parent Lack of habitat to return them to Reintroduce species Manage protected areas into suitable habitats of similar species to sustain native species Restore degraded ecosystems 57 58 3.4.U7 Community support, adequate funding and proper 3.4.U8 The location of a conservation area in a country is a research influences the success of conservation efforts significant factor in the success of the conservation effort. Surrounding land use for the conservation area and distance from urban centres are important factors for consideration in If surrounding communities do not perceive or receive conservation area design benefits from conservation, The proximity of humans and wildlife for Nairobi National Park the effort is doomed to fail creates both problems and opportunities for conservation Benefits include jobs, money, efforts in Kenya health care, and other life Providing alternative livelihoods for necessities communities bordering Budongo Forest Reserve has become a major concern, as Funding provides jobs long- pressure on the natural forest resources term continuity, direct support intensifies with increasing population. In turn, to communities, as well as occurrences of illegal activities in the forest monitoring, evaluation, and such as pit sawing and hunting also increases, enforcement of agreements which threatens the long term survival of forest flora and fauna, including the iconic chimpanzees. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001274815/nema-invites-comments-for-road-inside-nairobi-park 59 60 10  12/5/2024 3.4.A2 Evaluate the success of a given protected area 3.4.A3 Evaluate different approaches to protecting biodiversity Name the protected area and its location Select two named approaches to protecting Weight the pros and cons of each of the following aspects of the area biodiversity Size Shape 1. State whether the approach is habitat-based, species-based or a mixed approach Edge effect Corridors 2. Outline the pros and the cons of the approach, supported by evidence Human proximity (fragmentation) and/or examples Involvement of local communities 3. Determine whether the pros outweigh the cons, or vice versa, and Clearly state whether each aspects’ pros outweight its cons or vice justify your conclusion versa Reach an overall conclusion and support it with reasons 61 62 11