Pastoral Care PDF

 3DVWRUDO3UHVHQFH When it comes to Christian ministry, pastoral presence is central. Indeed many denominations use the term “pastor” or “minister” to describe their leaders; in both cases, the label clearly identifies the role – this person should be a pastor or should minister (or serve) the co...

 3DVWRUDO3UHVHQFH When it comes to Christian ministry, pastoral presence is central. Indeed many denominations use the term “pastor” or “minister” to describe their leaders; in both cases, the label clearly identifies the role – this person should be a pastor or should minister (or serve) the congregation. The act of “being there and available” when life gets difficult goes right to the heart of the Christian ministry. In this chapter, we shall look at the task of being a pastoral presence. The chapter will start by locating the task of pastoral care in a historical setting. Then we shall look at the five main facets of pastoral care. These are: 1. In Christian theology a pastoral presence can be a vehicle of bringing Christ's presence to a person. 2. When we deal with others, we bring out our own complexity; it is important for us to be aware of this. 3. Dealing with people at moments of acute distress and in a crisis is a particular challenge. 4. All mainline traditions have to handle the “confession of sin”; however, the Lutherans and Episcopalians have a more developed view of the role of the pastor/priest in those situations. 5. Pastoral care is different for people in different cultural settings. 7KH+LVWRULFDO6HWWLQJ Pastoral presence has always been recognized as a major part of Christian ministry. Gregory of Nazianzus (329–390 CE) writes movingly about fleeing the demands of priesthood partly because of the demands of pastoral ministry. John Chrysostom (349–407 CE) wrote Six Books on the Priesthood, which deals in some detail with the nature of the pastoral office. Gregory the Great (590–604 CE) in his Pastoral Care, makes the character of the priest central. Andrew Purves summarizes the advice in two syllogisms: First: Every art must be learned; the government of souls is the art of arts; thus, the government of souls must be learned. Second: Dangerous diseases must be treated by qualified physicians; diseases of the soul are the most dangerous of all diseases; thus, sin-sickness must be treated by qualified physicians of the soul. Pastors, in other words, must be especially fit through education and maturity for office.1 Here we find a dominant characteristic of subsequent pastoral theology – we need people who can see to lead the blind. Whole people, who are redeemed and sanctified, can be effective pastors. According to Purves, there are eight features of a classical approach to pastoral theology. First, “pastoral theology and pastoral care are explicitly confessional in content.”2 This means that one should not think of pastoral care in terms of the social science, but in terms of core Christian doctrine. Pastoral care is grounded in the incarnation and atonement. Second, “pastoral theology is a discipline, and pastoral care is a practice, deeply rooted at all points in the study of the Bible.”3 For the classic theologians, pastoral theology is never secular. They read Scripture as the way to understand people. They did not draw on the secular study of psychology, but on the biblical world view. Third, “ministry is a high calling to a holy office, the faithful exercise of which is necessary for the salvation of Christ's people.”4 This ministry is a calling for the classical tradition. It comes with certain intrinsic authority made possible by the status as pastor or priest. Fourth, “pastoral work demands taking heed to oneself to the end that he or she is theologically, spiritually and ethically a mature person.”5 The ancients knew the importance of the pastor being able to handle the demands of being a pastor to others. One's own life must focus on God; if one is not focused on God, then how can one help others to be focused on God. Fifth, “God will hold pastors accountable for the exercise of the pastoral office and the care of God's people.”6 For the classical tradition, pastoral care is deadly serious. If one sets oneself up to care for the souls of others, then it is essential to get it right. One does not do this work lightly. Sixth, “pastoral care is the art of arts.”7 This is difficult work. It is work best learned from a mentor, who just intuitively knows how to do things with sensitivity and skill. Seventh, “pastoral ministry is contextual and situational.”8 The tradition recognizes the complexity of this work. It recognizes that suggestions or approaches that work for one person will not necessarily work for another. And finally, “pastors deeply committed to the church wrote the classical texts.” The Fathers who wrote about pastoral care and pastoral theology were pastors. This was not a dry and academic exercise; it emerged from a ministry of pastoral care. This is one of the reasons why so many themes continue to resonate today. Now let us turn to contemporary approaches to pastoral care. And we start with the basic conception of pastoral care as the exercise of bringing Christ to those who are hurting. 7KH&KULVWRORJLFDO%DVLVRI3DVWRUDO&DUH The remarkable claim of Christians is that at the heart of the universe is goodness and love enabling everything that is and sustaining everything that is. The disclosure of this truth is Jesus of Nazareth – the Messiah (in Greek, “the Christ”) who ushers in the reign of God. As Jesus, the historical person, dies, rises from the dead, and ascends into heaven, so God enables the presence of Christ to take different forms. So Jesus says in Matthew, “For where two or three are gathered in my name, I am there among them” (Matthew 18:20). Paul develops the concept of the presence of Christ in his first letter to the Corinthians, where he explains that the Church is the Body of Christ: “Now you are the body of Christ and individually members of it” (1 Corinthians 12:27). The idea is simple. For these New Testament writers, now that Jesus is no longer physically present, we, as members of the Church – redeemed and restored in God, are the physical presence of Christ in the world. The mystic St. Teresa of Avila (1515–1582 CE) makes the point in a delightful way in her poem “Christ Has no Body”: Christ has no body but yours, No hands, no feet on earth but yours, Yours are the eyes with which he looks Compassion on this world, Yours are the feet with which he walks to do good, Yours are the hands, with which he blesses all the world. Yours are the hands, yours are the feet, Yours are the eyes, you are his body. Christ has no body now but yours, No hands, no feet on earth but yours, Yours are the eyes with which he looks compassion on this world. Christ has no body now on earth but yours.9 6W7HUHVDRI$YLOD ߙ&( Carmelite nun and Roman Catholic saint, Teresa of Avila, largely through her autobiographical works, The Life of Teresa of Jesus and The Interior Castle, forever shaped our subsequent understanding of Christian mysticism, meditation, and spiritual practice. Pastoral care then is noble work. The Church is the presence of Christ in the world. And when we meet a person who is hurting, we are called to bring the reality of Christ in the form of friendship and hospitality to that person. This means that we can draw on the divine touch as we work with this person in pain. We can pray for God's healing action in that life. There is a vast difference between secular pastoral care and Christian pastoral care. The secular approach works within a psychological and biological framework. The Christian approach is happy to absorb insights from psychology and biology, but recognizes that we live in a spiritually infused reality, where God can touch and transform situations. It is an additional dimension that transforms the perspective. So pastoral care is a divine activity: the purpose of pastoral care is to bring Christ to the person who is hurting. For Barbara Blodgett (coming out of the United Church of Christ tradition), a pastor needs to be both a prophet and priest. The prophet involves “speaking out,” while “priestliness might best be characterized by standing with.”10 So she is not thinking of the term priest in the sense used by Episcopalians, instead she sees it as a role that any pastor or minister can inhabit. Her primary theme is that a priest is a person who is in “solidarity, especially with those who are suffering.”11 However, although this is divine work, we remain who we are – men and women mired in sin and complexity. It is to this dimension that we turn next. 7KH&RPSOH[$JHQWVRI&DUH Naturally the obligation of discipleship is to draw on the resources that God has made available to become more and more Christ-like in our interactions with others. However, we are still in a fallen world. Perfection in our thoughts, discourse, and actions is very difficult, if not impossible. So in the pastoral encounter, we bring our fragility and complexity to the conversation. Each of us is, in the famous phrase of Henri Nouwen (1932–1996), a “wounded healer.” For Henri Nouwen, the modern context of pastoral care is highly distinctive. We live in a highly technological age, which can keep a person on a machine long after any quality of life has gone. We live in a highly impersonal age. Unlike the small town, where there is a small population, but everyone knows everyone else, the city is a place where there are millions of people but no one knows anyone. The city is a highly impersonal and for many a deeply unfriendly place. For those who are working, the sense of job satisfaction can be limited and much of the work is routine. So Nouwen talks about “nuclear man” for whom “life easily becomes a bow whose string is broken and from which no arrow can fly. In his dislocated state he becomes paralyzed. His reactions are not anxiety and joy, which were so much a part of existential man, but apathy and boredom.”12 For Nouwen, both the persons needing pastoral care and the persons bringing the pastoral care are infected by the predicaments facing “nuclear man” (and he does acknowledge in his acknowledgments that he is sensitive to the “male-dominated language” and hopes women readers “will have patience”13 with such language). And the distinctive contribution of Nouwen is that the sensitivity of the person bringing pastoral care to his or her own wounds opens up a resource for effective pastoral care. He illustrates this with a delightful legend from the Talmud, which is worth quoting in full: Rabbi Yoshua ben Levi came upon Elijah the prophet while he was standing at the entrance of Rabbi Simeron ben Yohai's cave. … He asked Elijah, “When will the Messiah come?” Elijah replied, “Go and ask him yourself.” “Where is he?” “Sitting at the gates of the city.” “How shall I know him?” “He is sitting among the poor covered with wounds. The others unbind all their wounds at the same time and then bind them up again. But he unbinds one at a time and binds it up again, saying to himself, ‘Perhaps I shall be needed: if so I must already be taken so as not to delay the moment.’ ”14 Nouwen explains that this is a good model for the minister. He explains: Since it is his task to make visible the first vestiges of liberation for others, he must bind his own wounds carefully in anticipation of the moment when he will be needed. He is called to be the wounded healer, the one who must look after his own wounds but at the same time be prepared to heal the wounds of others.15 For Nouwen, the primary wound that everyone has is “loneliness.” We are born into a deeply competitive world; the result is an increasing separation from others and a pervasive sense of loneliness. However, instead of hating this wound that afflicts both the person needing pastoral care and the pastoral caregiver, we need to learn to appreciate it. So Nouwen writes: But the more I think about loneliness, the more I think that the wound of loneliness is like the Grand Canyon – a deep incision in the surface of our existence which has become an inexhaustible source of beauty and self-understanding. … The Christian way of life does not take away our loneliness; it protects and cherishes it as a precious gift.16 For Nouwen, we need to recognize that at the heart of the human condition, there is an isolation, which can only be fully known by God. The denial of the truth leads to promiscuity or inappropriate and damaging expectations in a marriage. The caregiver needs to know this truth and live aware of this truth. In addition to the loneliness shared by all humans, Nouwen adds a second complicating loneliness that is distinctively true of the caregiver. When one serves, for example as a chaplain, one often finds oneself on the periphery. In hospitals, the doctors and nurses are the center of the attention, the person who wants to speak to the fundamental concerns of the patient is on the edge; in the prison, the wardens make the decisions, the chaplain will be lucky to be in the room for the conversation. Nouwen's thesis could be developed further. The truth about effective pastoral care is that one cannot be present for another without being deeply aware of one's inner dynamics. We are all bundles of insecurities and fears. Often these insecurities express themselves in complex patterns of behavior. Self-knowledge is essential for a caregiver. In understanding ourselves, it may be possible to help others understand themselves. Good pastoral care is, ultimately, a conversation. It is a three-way conversation, with God, with the caregiver, and with the person needing care. God's grace is needed for both the caregiver and the person needing care. $FXWH'LVWUHVVDQGWKH&ULVLV Living can be very tricky. Life is fragile. It is very easy for our sense of “normal” to come crashing down. From the traffic accident to a breakdown of a relationship, we are all on the cusp of a crisis. Those things that we fear most do happen. When this happens, we have a crisis; we have people in acute distress. H. Norman Wright in his book Crisis Counseling documents with care the pattern of a crisis.17 The first phase is “the impact.” This is when the spouse has left or the death of a loved one has occurred. It is the moment of shock and numbness. The second phase is “withdrawal and confusion.” Sometimes this phase takes the form of anger and resentment. Confusion is commonplace. The woman who has lost her job might decide to just give up and never try and find another job again; or the husband wants to sue the hospital where his wife died. The third phase is a gradual one; this is the phase of “adjustment.” This varies considerably from person to person. But this is the season when hope slowly replaces the depression. One never gets over an acute crisis, the presenting issue will haunt a life in some way, but one can find new and other reasons to be constructive. And slowly one starts to rebuild one's life. This is the fourth phase, which is called “reconstruction–reconciliation.” It is this phase that leads to growth, hope, and a new and different life. It is the time when perspective has arrived and the tragedy can be located in a bigger picture of hopefulness. Every situation and every tragedy has a different pattern. It is important not to try and simply take a template and impose it on every situation. However, Bruce Petersen suggests certain guidelines that can be helpful.18 1. Respond immediately. In an age when self-care of clergy is considered a priority, it is worth remembering that some things trump the evening in or the good night's sleep. A pastor who is there in those initial moments will be a much-loved pastor. People never forget who was there for them when the crisis initially arises. This is a fundamental of your vocation. It is the moment when a pastor must be the pastoral presence. 2. Assess the situation. There are countless situations where this assessment role is key. There are moments when you need to bring in greater expertise. If, for example, the person is a danger to himself or to others, then you might need a trip to the Emergency Room or to contact the authorities. 3. Bring calm to the situation. Often the most important contribution is a simple touch or a reassuring word. Calm is a great gift. Where others are being hysterical, the pastor can ease the situation with the gentle touch and the prayer. 4. Establish rapport. Often there are many parties to a crisis. So do reach out to all the people in the room – the doctor, the friend who made the journey, and the sibling who is visiting. Let them know who you are and why you are present. 5. Be a good listener. Don't rush to give advice. Instead, pause and listen very attentively. Do not interrupt. Often a crisis can be dissipated by a good listener who clearly demonstrates an understanding spirit. 6. Determine what immediate action must be taken. As time passes, the immediate priority is the safety of all those in the moment. If it is an argument between spouses, then finding out exactly where people are staying that night is important. If it is a person who has driven to the hospital to find out her child is dead, then the immediate question is how that person gets home safely that night. 7. Help the person set goals for the future. This is almost always in a subsequent meeting or meetings. But as people come to terms with the crisis, they need advice about the future. Inviting them to set a goal is an important part of helping them cope with the crisis. 8. Develop a plan of action to move toward the goal. To move towards a goal requires that initial step. One step at a time and one day at a time are good mantras for this season of slow adjustment beyond the crisis. 9. Evaluate the person's support system. In the immediate aftermath of the crisis, the support networks can be exceptionally strong. The rule for the pastor is to reach out in the weeks and months  afterwards. It is as the initial support network dissipates (because people assume that their friend is coping) that a deeper crisis can then set in. The pastor needs to track constantly the support system. 0. Help with acceptance. This is the hard work of helping a person through the phases of the crisis. Acceptance is a vital step to coping constructively with the crisis. 1. Foster a sense of hope. A crisis can generate despair. And despair can be deeply damaging. The pastor is always a symbol of hope in a difficult situation. 2. Commit to follow up. Being there in the moment of crisis becomes a commitment to support the person through the crisis. So always finish a meeting with a commitment to come and visit again. The primary theological narrative that needs to be in the mind of the person seeking to be the pastoral presence in a crisis is the Gospel narrative of crucifixion and resurrection. At the heart of the Christian drama is the claim that God has been there. God faced the pain and humiliation of suffering and death. God also promises that Good Friday is followed by Easter Sunday. We go through Good Friday to get to Easter Monday. We are the ones that take people through their pain and help them find the resurrection hope and promise from God. &RQIHVVLRQRI6LQ So far, all the sections in this chapter apply to all ministers in the mainline. This section is different. This is the where the United Church of Christ (UCC), the United Methodists, and the Presbyterians differ from the Lutherans and the Episcopalians. However, before we get to the differences, the mainline does share a conviction that the confession of sin is a central act of discipleship. We are all broken; we all struggle; and we all fail. As we strive to be vehicles of love and life in this world, we need to bring our brokenness to God. God promises to forgive the past and provide the resources to transform us into a Christ-like presence. These convictions are shared by all Christians. And for those members of the UCC, the United Methodists, and the Presbyterians, they participate in a public confession every Sunday in the service and, in addition, are invited to discuss their struggles with their minister and bring them to God. They may pray about areas of difficulties together with their minister; but the confession is made directly to God. The Lutherans and the Episcopalians share with the Roman Catholic Church a sense that God has invited the priest to play a distinctive role in the rite of reconciliation. At one level this is the simple idea that, although we can all know theoretically that we are forgiven, the voice of another person declaring that God has indeed forgiven us can make the theory a reality. The conversation with another truly holds us accountable. Now, of course, this could be a lay person. And all the mainline traditions concur that this can be helpful. So there is another level, in Lutheran and Episcopal polity, which prefers this task to be entrusted to a priest. So Julia Gatta and Martin L. Smith write: [T]he rite of reconciliation is most appropriately administered by bishops and priests because they are ordained to act on behalf of the whole church. The ministry of absolution is reserved to them because it is an authoritative action of the church, exercising the power to forgive sin entrusted to it by the Risen Christ. Hearing confessions and pronouncing absolution belongs emphatically to the cure of souls.19 In the act of ordination of a priest, it is clear that one of the duties entrusted to this woman or man is the task of hearing confession and pronouncing absolution. It is because of the recognition grounded in the ordination that the polity prefers a priest to play this role. Interestingly many members of the Episcopal Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America do not realize that confession is available. So only a small number come forward and ask a priest to take them formally through the rite of reconciliation. However, the process can be important and life-changing. For Episcopalians and Lutherans, this is a liturgical rite. So it is important that there is an understanding that this is now moving from pastoral counseling to confession. During pastoral counseling, one must be discreet; during the rite, the seal of the confessional is an absolute. Even after the person has died, the details of the confession cannot be shared; in fact, the priest should not even discuss the confession with the penitent, although the penitent is free to do so as he or she wishes. There are several ways in which confession can be undertaken. However, best practice tends to highlight the following. First, there should be a time of appropriate preparation. If this is the first confession, then the penitent should divide his or her life into sections and reflect on the challenges embedded in each section. One should deal with one section at a time: spending three full days looking at every act of unworthiness in a lifetime could be mentally damaging. Second, the room should be appropriately arranged. Two comfortable chairs facing each other and space for kneeling are helpful. Third, the priest must listen with care as the rite is unfolding without interrupting. Allow the memories to come; allow the inevitable pauses to be part of the process. Finally, the priest should reflect on the confession, promise the forgiveness of God, and suggest certain actions (which can be both actions of amelioration, but also actions of thanksgiving) that help the penitent to be freed from the destructive power of sin. The past is a challenge for all of us. Confession is a good way of coming to terms with the power of the past. One cannot change the past: it sits there unable to be altered. But the impact of the past can be changed. We don't have to live with the crushing guilt or regret. The promise of the Gospel is that we can be freed up from that impact. &DVH6WXG\ Some of the hardest cases in pastoral care have to do with the keeping of confidences. So consider the following case study and decide what you would do. You are sitting in your office and a member of the congregation knocks on your door. It is Harry; he has been finding life difficult ever since his wife Melanie left him. He wants to speak with you, and you invite him to sit down. He starts by reflecting on the  breakdown of his marriage. He then pauses and says, “Please can you keep this in confidence.” You reply: “Of course.” He then starts to explain that he suspects Melanie was having a relationship with his best friend. He thinks that she has had an affair. As he speaks, he becomes more and more agitated. He explains: “This makes me mad. I am going to go around to see Melanie and just have it out with her.” He bangs the table. You try and calm him down, but it is clear that he is now very angry and blaming Melanie. He storms out of the room. You have promised to keep a confidence. Yet you are also aware that Melanie might be at risk. What do you do? &DUHIRUWKH6LFN One difficult area in pastoral care is the issue of sickness. Pastoral care often involves meeting and supporting those who are sick. So it is important for the caregiver to be clear about the theology of sickness. First, it is important to undermine any connection between sin and sickness. The question “why me?” is often a Job question. The implicit assumption is that “after all, I am a person of relative virtue, so why do I have cancer?” There are passages in Scripture that tend to imply a connection, but Jesus is clear in John 9 when confronted with the question explicitly: As he walked along, he saw a man blind from birth. His disciples asked him, “Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?” Jesus answered, “Neither this man nor his parents sinned; he was born blind so that God's works might be revealed in him.” (John 9:1–3) The problem here, says Jesus, is not sin, but blindness. And the solution is healing. It is very important for the pastor in any situation to eliminate a sense of guilt that might be part of the situation. Second, prayer is a gift in a situation of sickness. The pastor should strive to connect the person struggling with the pain with the hope promised in the Gospel. A good prayer should remind the person who is suffering that God is there right alongside them. This is the God of Good Friday who knows exactly what pain involves. In addition, it is important to invite the power of God into the situation; however, this need not (and often will not) take the form of dramatic healing or to be more accurate the form of healing may not be physical. The pattern of life followed by death is set for all of us – something will take us to glory. So inviting the power of God to be made manifest in “coping” or in “enjoying family” or “enjoying the next holiday” or in “being free from pain” (which thanks to advances in palliative care is increasingly possible) might be the prayer that person needs. Third, think through healing. The Christian tradition is clear: God seeks to put pressure on a tragic and difficult situation and bring wholeness and healing. For some, this will take the form of the Christian hope in the life to come; for others, it will take the form of a dramatic or steady recovery from a situation that looks medically very difficult. Naturally, God alone determines what is best; but as the pastor you can believe God can physically heal. Any robust account of providence should include the possibility of physical healing as an option in this situation. 'LIIHUHQW&XOWXUHVDQG'LIIHUHQW3DVWRUDO&DUH $SSURDFKHV One size does not fit all. Skilled pastoral care requires a recognition that different situations require different dynamics. So for example “touch” is often used as a way of reaching out. However, touch must be used carefully. Some cultures forbid cross-gender contact (e.g. many Islamic and Jewish groups); others limit touch to certain areas (primarily hands) and would not welcome the hand on a shoulder. So a sensitivity of approach is important to learn. It takes time to learn about a particular sub-culture. The culture of the United Kingdom is quite different from the culture of New England, which is quite different from the culture of Alabama. In the American South, a bereavement committee is likely to bake for the reception after a funeral service; elsewhere, an Irish family in New England might still observe the traditions of the “wake” (which is normally held in the home of the deceased). Along with regional differences, we have racial and ethnic differences. For many African American and Hispanic families, tragedy is a matter for the entire extended family. Therefore any pastoral care will often involve handing significant numbers of people (all with their own often distinctive pastoral care needs). Pastoral care in these situations needs to be learned. You must spend time learning to “read” the sub-culture. Modes of address, contact between people, meeting etiquette, departure etiquette, and the symbols and associations that can help to support will all vary. Effective pastoral care depends on living with the people one is seeking to serve. It is very difficult to “drop in from the sky” and to suddenly provide such support. One needs to understand the people for whom one is seeking to care. One needs to understand the distinctive patterns, narratives, and dispositions that make up a community. This is where the social sciences can be helpful. Carrie Doehring, a Presbyterian, points out the importance of cultural studies: Cultural studies have helped pastoral caregivers understand how the social identity of careseekers is shaped by their gender, race, sexual orientation, social class, and religious identities. A variety of theoretical perspectives – feminist and gender studies; gay, lesbian, and transgender studies; African American, Hispanic, Asian American, and other ethnically and racially orientated studies – offers norms for interpreting the careseeker's experience of his or her social identity.20 One major theme of Doehring's work is that ineffective pastoral care can be damaging. One needs to operate within a contract of care for “such contracts ensure that careseekers will not be harmed.”21 The idea that a pastor can make situations worse is important to recognize. Situations are often made worse because of the pastor's failure to understand different cultural settings. Cultural gaps are a major part of pastoral ineffectiveness. To avoid such damaging moments, a good pastor is part of the community he or she seeks to serve. &RQFOXVLRQ For those called to ministry, the pastoral role is an important aspect. If a minister is present at these crucial moments of change and upheaval, the congregation will forgive the minister's many weaknesses. If the minister is absent, then a congregation will slowly turn on the minister. Learning the craft of care is vitally important. The pastor needs to be the one who is willing to go to places that others fear. No one wants to undergo the journey of death alone. The pastor is the one who represents the Christian narrative and drama and brings that presence to the hardest of situations and moments. Pastoral care for Christians is grounded in the cross and resurrection. We do not deny the reality of suffering and pain. Good Friday is all too real. However, we do not think it is the complete story. Good Friday needs Resurrection Sunday. We trust that in the hardest of moments God will take our pain and transform it into hope. 1RWHV 1. Andrew Purves, Pastoral Theology in the Classical Tradition (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 64. 2. Ibid., 115. 3. Ibid., 116. 4. Ibid., 117. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 118. 7. Ibid., 119. 8. Ibid. 9. See http://www.journeywithjesus.net/PoemsAndPrayers/Teresa_Of_Av (accessed June 3, 2015) 10. Barbara Blodgett, Becoming the Pastor You Hope to Be: Four Practices for Improving Ministry (Herndon, VA: Alban, 2011), 146. 11. Ibid., 146. 12. Henri J.M. Nouwen, The Wounded Healer: Ministry in Contemporary Society (New York: Doubleday, 1972), 8. 13. Ibid., viii. 14. Ibid., 83–84. Nouwen notes that this is taken from the tractate Sanhedrin. 15. Ibid., 84. 16. Ibid., 85–86. 17. See H. Norman Wright, Crisis Counseling: What to Do and Say During the First 72 Hours (Ventura, CA: Regal, 1993), 31–40. 18. Bruce L. Petersen, Foundations of Pastoral Care (Kansas City: Beacon Hill, 2007), 178–182. Petersen provides the initial list. The descriptions under each point are our own. 19. Julia Gatta and Martin L. Smith, Go in Peace: The Art of Hearing Confessions (New York: Morehouse Publishing, 2012), 35. 20. Carrie Doehring, The Practice of Pastoral Care: A Postmodern Approach (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 8. 21. Ibid., 11. $QQRWDWHG%LEOLRJUDSK\ Blodgett, Barbara J., Becoming the Pastor You Hope to Be: Four Practices for Improving Ministry (Herndon, VA: Alban, 2011). Barbara Blodgett was the director of supervised ministry at Yale Divinity School and is now Minister for Vocation and Formation for the United Church of Christ in Cleveland. The focus of this book is how to become a better pastor. However, her section on “priestliness” addresses the idea of pastoral presence. The title of this chapter comes from her work. Bloede, Louis W., The Effective Pastor: A Guide to Successful Ministry (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1996). A Presbyterian with lots of practical advice. His celebration and affirmation of the “pastoral call” to a home is especially commendable. Carr, Wesley, The Pastor as Theologian (London: SPCK, 2008). One of the leading UK Anglican voices on the nature of pastoral presence. He makes the Incarnation central to his account. Doehring, Carrie, The Practice of Pastoral Care: A Postmodern Approach (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006). Doehring is a Presbyterian minister and assistant professor of pastoral care and counseling at Iliff School of Theology. This text invites us into a rich and diverse understanding of the challenge of handling the diversity of pastoral care situations. Elford, R. John, The Pastoral Nature of Theology: An Uphold Presence (London: Mowbray, 2001). Makes the argument that pastoral theology is not a branch of theology but the heart of theology. Gatta, Julia, The Nearness of God: Parish Ministry as Spiritual Practice (New York: Morehouse Publishing, 2010). A classic text. She examines the way in which a priest is a pastoral figure and the necessity for self-awareness, respect, reverence, and space. Gatta, Julia and Smith, Martin L., Go in peace: The Art of Hearing Confessions (New York: Morehouse Publishing, 2012). Powerful, thoughtful, and helpful. This is the finest introduction to the task of confession for the mainline. The focus is the Episcopal Church, but it would work well for Lutherans. Gerkin, Charles V., An Introduction to Pastoral Care (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1997). Gerkin provides a biblical history and an account of pastoral care that takes psychology, the social gospel movement, and academic pastoral theology seriously. He sees the pastor as “Shepherd of the Flock, Mediator and Reconciler, and Ritualistic Leader.” Howe, Leroy T., Image of God: A Theology for Pastoral Care and Counseling (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1995). Having taught for many years at Southern Methodist University, Howe sets out a theology of pastoral care which is grounded in the conviction that people are made in the Image of God. A solid, although often theoretical discussion of the theological underpinning of pastoral care. Lartey, Emmanuel Y., Pastoral Theology in an Intercultural World (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2006). Lartey looks at pastoral counseling in an international and global world. He addresses the importance of the pastor meeting people in their own context, which takes into account culture, experience, need, and background. Nouwen, Henri, Wounded Healer: Ministry in Contemporary Society (New York: Doubleday and Co., 1972). The master of pastoral care analysis. This book provides a wise critique of our situation in modernity and how important it is for the healer to recognize that he or she is part of the modern situation. Peterson, Bruce L., Foundations of Pastoral Care (Kansas City, KN: Beacon Hill Press, 2007). A textbook for pastoral care that includes considerable practical advice. Purves, Andrew, Pastoral Theology in the Classical Tradition (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001). This book reminds us that pastoral care is deeply entrenched in the Christian tradition. Wright, Frank, The Pastoral Nature of the Ministry (London: SCM Press, 1980). Often considered as the “father” of pastoral care. This is a classic and important text.  &KULVWLDQ(GXFDWLRQDQG )RUPDWLRQ How does one embrace a life of faith? This fundamental question is at the heart of our exploration of Christian education and formation. In this chapter we will explore this question from a variety of perspectives. For instance, does faith grow mostly in an open heart, does it flourish primarily in an enlightened mind, or does it thrive chiefly in hands that serve? Is a lively faith achieved by more and better programming, by intentional small groups, or by the worship life of the gathered community? Is faith acquired instantaneously or gradually, is it obtained individually or communally, is it innate (bubbling up from within us) or is it extrinsic (coming from outside of us)? Is faith static and fixed or is it dynamic and evolving? Is the Christian life more about knowledge to be mastered or is it more a lifestyle to imitate? Is the development of faith predictable or spontaneous? We confess at the start that the answer to all of these questions, to some degree, is a resounding, yes! Yet we also confess that there are many variables at play in the planting of the seeds, the nurturing, and the flowering of faith. Faith development is not an exact science, with observable and controllable results, nor is it completely illusive, beyond our ability to guide and influence. Faith development is essentially the work of the Holy Spirit, and this chapter seeks to find meaningful ways to partner with the Spirit in this vital work. To that end, we highlight three central themes that we believe are critical to initiating, encouraging, and sustaining a life of faith. The first is the significance of the “domestic church,” that is, the important role of households in the promotion of faith. Second, and closely connected to the first, is the development of daily practices, which strengthen and reinforce a life of faith. Last, we emphasize corporate worship as an essential means of integration and a fundamental resource for the shaping of a Christian life. We believe that this combination (individual habits nurtured in households, in partnership with a larger faith community) provides a lively framework in which the Spirit can flourish in the lives of God's people. (GXFDWLRQRU)RUPDWLRQ" The naming of this chapter was challenging. Is a life of faith essentially the result of a process of Christian education or is it the result of a process of Christian formation? There is an inherent tension between the two. When we think of the process of education, we usually think of a formal classroom, led by a knowledgeable teacher, teaching cognitive/intellectual lessons, designed to illicit some sort of action, or changed behavior on the part of the student. The knowledgeable teacher imparts wisdom to the student, who in turn does something with this new information. When we think of the process of formation, we usually think of more informal settings led by mentors instead of teachers. The overarching metaphor for Christian formation is that of a journey or a pilgrimage, with the mentor being both a guide and a fellow pilgrim. Formation appears to be more holistic. Rather than simply an intellectual exercise leading to a particular action or behavior, formation has to do with the shaping of character and the nurturing of relationships.1 The focus is on being rather than doing. The conclusion of this simplistic assessment is inevitably that the work of formation is far superior to the work of education and therefore must be the gold standard for faith development. We believe, however, that congregations are best served by holding the two together, and working to synthesize the best attributes of both.2 The reality is, of course, that each of us acquires knowledge and wisdom differently, and a more comprehensive approach is certainly more effective. We will say more about this later in the chapter. Before leaving this topic, it is helpful to underscore the overarching goals of Christian education and formation. For congregations, the aim is to be lively communities that teach and shape faithful and faith- filled disciples, but for what purpose? In his textbook, Introduction to Christian Education and Formation, Ronald Habermas, building on the work of others, speaks of the five global tasks of Christian education and formation based on the experience and witness of the early Church. He contends that the first task, based on the Greek idea of kerygma, has to do with proclamation, the sharing of the Good News. The second task, based on the Greek idea of koinonia, has to do with fellowship, the building up of the Christian community, the Body of Christ. The third, based on the Greek idea of diakonia, has to do with service, both inside and outside the community of the Church. The fourth, based on the Greek idea of basileia, has to do with the embracing of the values of the reign of God (principles of justice, compassion, righteousness, and peace). The fifth task, which is an integration of all of the previous four, based on the Greek idea of leitourgia, has to do with the liturgy, the work of the people, in offering of praise, thanksgiving, and worship to God.3 All of these constitute not only the global tasks of education and formation, but are also, each in themselves, a means by which faith is celebrated and shared. ,QWHUQDO&ULVLVRU([WHUQDO7KUHDW The question of faith development in the mainline Church is embedded in a call for the renewal of Christian education and formation in congregations. For many, the future of the mainline rests on this revitalization. In the introduction of her book Basics of Christian Education, Karen Tye states the problem by pointing to a recent national study of Protestant congregations. The findings of the study are disturbing and sadly familiar: adults are largely disinterested in Christian education; it is increasingly difficult to keep children involved past the eighth grade; there is great difficulty in recruiting and keeping volunteers; and clergy and parents seem generally disinterested. To make matters worse, many congregations are seduced by pre-packaged, high tech, and quick-fix remedies, rather than engaging in serious and intentional conversation about core issues.4 Addressing the dire consequences of inaction, Tye quotes Walter Brueggemann, who reminds us that “every community that wants to last beyond a single generation must concern itself with education.”5 He goes on to state the dual purpose of education, to provide both continuity and change. For the Church, this means carrying forth the traditions and teachings that have been central to the life of Christian people throughout the ages, while at the same time acknowledging that God is always breaking forth in new ways, in new contexts and new situations. Brueggemann again, focusing on the dual nature of education, warns that “education must attend both the process of continuity and discontinuity in order to avoid fossilizing into irrelevance on the one hand, and relativizing into disappearance on the other hand.”6 For Tye, this situation calls for a radical response. From the congregational perspective this requires acknowledgement that the transmitting of faith includes both knowledge and practice, it involves enculturation into a community of faith, as well as personal development. Put another way, and incorporating the work of Daniel Aleshire, she contends that the four tasks of Christian education are first, to learn the Christian story; second, to develop the skills to act out faith; third, to reflect on the story and live a life of faith congruent with that truth; and last to nurture these sensibilities within a covenant community.7 She also warns that the enemy of Christian education, and a hindrance to revitalization, is the fear of change, the presumption that we know what is right, and the “tyranny of the urgent,” which seeks the elusive silver bullet to provide an immediate fix. On the contrary, Tye calls for radical patience and faithful persistence. She also advocates for congregational programs that are experiential in nature, reflective of that experience, and relational in the sense that they are connected to the whole community.8.HQGD&UHDV\'HDQ A United Methodist pastor, Kenda Creasy Dean proposes an approach to Christian education that has mission at its core and at the same time offers concrete suggestions about how to live authentic Christian lives. Based on her extensive study and work with American teenagers, she argues that this approach combats the often less demanding, watered down theology that characterizes much of contemporary mainline Christianity. Along similar lines, Kenda Creasy Dean, who teaches at Princeton Theological Seminary, also argues that our concern about faith development, particularly among teenagers, is primarily the result of an internal crisis. In her important book Almost Christian: What the Faith of Our Teenagers is Telling the American Church, she argues that the combination of a “lightweight hands-off deistic approach to God” on the part of parenting adults, and the proclamation of an “imposter faith posing as Christianity” on the part of congregations has led to the development of what scholars are now calling Moralistic Therapeutic Deism (MTD). This term, coined by sociologists Christian Smith and Melinda Denton, describes a combination of beliefs, not exclusive to any major world religion, currently held by many young people. In response, Dean implores the Church to focus energy on mission with respect to youth and engaging and educating parents in matters of faith.9 Others have responded to the current crisis in a different way. Rather than seeing the problem as mostly an internal predicament unique to the mainline, some see a much more aggressive external threat to the wider Church as a whole. “Multiculturalism, naturalism, and relativism have eroded our once moral and ethical system of laws and public education. The challenges facing Christian education in the 21st century are to withstand the onslaught of these humanistic philosophies and to educate believers with the absolute truth found only in the Bible.”10 One could question whether or not a more perfect age of morality and ethics ever existed, and one could argue about the extent to which these external forces have shaped our current reality, and one could argue that indeed the Bible is our primary source and guide, but perhaps a more nuanced and more comprehensive interpretation might be helpful. Arguing from this perspective, Robert Pazmino, building on the work of Columbia University professor Laurence Cremin, defines Christian education as the deliberate, systematic, and sustained divine and human effort to share or appropriate the knowledge, values, attitudes, skills, sensitivities, and behaviors that comprise or are consistent with the Christian faith. It fosters the change, renewal, and reformation of  persons, groups, and structures by the power of the Holy Spirit to conform to the revealed will of God as expressed in the Old and New Testaments and preeminently in the person of Jesus Christ, as well as any outcomes of that effort.11 This approach takes into account the possibility that all truth is God's truth wherever it may be found and cautions that in the postmodern world, “Christian education must avoid teaching Bible and theology as ends in themselves, reducing them to purely cognitive constructs.”12 Rather the ideal is to help “students learn to think in biblical ways, using theology as a guide to categories of thinking.”13 This understanding helps us to see the pluralism of the postmodern world as less of the threat to our existence and more of an opportunity to fulfill our mission. Given that very soon the United States will consist of a “majority of minorities,” the question is not whether congregations will need to explore the obstacles and barriers to welcoming people of different cultures and world views, the question is whether or not it will be morally acceptable for a congregation to represent only one culture in a society of such great diversity. The varied denominations of the mainline, and the congregations within them, are not in agreement regarding the boundaries of inclusion and openness to diversity. There are those who insist that, realistically speaking, the local congregation, given its own unique culture, will in fact exclude people in spite of its intention to reach everyone. They argue that “attempts to reach everyone in general will reach no one in particular.”14 Yet it is also true that the idea of homogeneity must also be rejected. More and more, little by little, denominations and congregations are realizing that it is a misconception to believe that unity comes from uniformity of belief and practice, but rather from the strength of diversity. There still exists a danger in the mainline for congregations to develop exclusive memberships based on race, class, cultural and economic lines rather than seeing ourselves as a common humanity. Any postmodern Christian education program must start here, with changed attitudes, found in the acceptance and appreciation of diversity coupled with the genuine desire to reflect the whole family of God.15 In her thorough text The Church as Learning Community, Norma Cook Everest begins her work by summoning the words of John Wesley, who reminded his followers, “not to make the parish your world, but make the world your parish.” She later reinforces that point by reiterating that the Church's very purpose is to encourage and equip its people for mission. That means being sent out from the congregation into an increasingly pluralistic world. For Everest, the key to engagement is clarity of identity, understanding that we are sent out as Christian people. She rightly advises that “no one is served by our being less of who we are, but rather more of who we are.”16 $%URDGHU9LVLRQ This inclusive vision of Christian education and formation is captured in Mark Bozzuti-Jones' important book, Informed by Faith. In this book he not only assumes a widely diverse and multicultural future for the Church, but he also offers a diverse and multicultural approach to teaching, or more specifically, a diverse and multicultural approach to offering faith. Emphasizing the strengths and distinct contributions of African and Asian cultures, as well as the western tradition that grew out of classical Greek society, Bozzuti-Jones helps to make the connections with the biblical narrative. He also emphasizes the deep Jewish roots of Christianity and this rich tradition that is an integral part of our heritage. In all of these cultures and traditions he highlights the power of word and story to shape lives as well as the critical importance of using word and story, in all its many forms, as a means of passing on our tradition. Scripture – word and story – is meant to engage the individual and the whole community in a life-long conversation, a conversation that is enriched by all of the cultures and traditions that have preceded us.17 In addition to framing an argument for a more broadly inclusive approach to faith formation, he also seeks to redefine the task of Christian education in a way that is consistent with this vision. Acknowledging that we usually characterize education as the process or act of educating, he looks more closely at the root meaning of the word. The verb “educate,” comes from the Latin educare, meaning, to educe, to extract, or to draw out a latent or potential existence. Thus education, in this context, means the calling forth of wisdom that already exists. He proposes that “wisdom is experience and knowledge combined with the power of applying our experiences and knowledge critically or actively in our daily activities.”18 Education is then the process of leading out or calling forth wisdom. The implications of this definition for a broader vision of faith development are quite profound. If wisdom is one of the primary gifts of the Spirit, and all of God's people, young and old, near and far, receive the gift of the Spirit, then the starting point for religious education and formation is to “know and believe that all are gifted in and with the wisdom of God. Educators have the unending task of drawing out of themselves and their students the wisdom that abides in them.”19 Christian education thus requires a reflective life that allows teacher and student to pay attention to the inner movement of the Spirit, paying attention to the questions and answers in our hearts, paying attention to what is happening in our lives, and paying attention to God educating us in our experiences with one another.20 This perspective recognizes that teachers are not perfect and do not have all the answers, and also that all students, even the very young, have wisdom and experience to share. +XPDQ'HYHORSPHQW As mentioned previously in this chapter, all of us acquire wisdom and knowledge in different ways. It is true that all of us learn using a variety of modalities, all of us mature at different rates, and all of us gain maturity yet not in every part of our lives. Given this certainty, the work of Christian education and formation may seem overwhelming, if not impossible. Yet with the help of four major theorists in the field of human development, the task is a bit less daunting. Speaking specifically of Jean Piaget (in the field of cognitive development), Lawrence Kohlberg (in the field of moral development), James Fowler (in the field of faith development), and Eric Erikson (in the field of psychosocial development), we have much to learn about the stages, patterns, and processes of human development. No one theory is adequate, in and of itself, in terms of expressing the breadth of human development, and none offers a complete or comprehensive understanding. However, each one does offer valuable perspectives, unique insights, and bits of wisdom that better enable us to understand the cognitive and emotional needs and the developmental issues of those we are called to serve. Educational scholar, John Dettoni, after studying the works and insights of these important thinkers, offers a synthesis of their ideas and developed what he calls “Practical Insights for Christian Education and Formation.”21 Briefly stated, he concludes that people are more alike than dissimilar and we would be more effective in our work if we possessed a basic understanding of life stages and development. He also summarizes that maturity is an anticipated process for everyone, and this is an inner process that parents, teachers, and mentors seek to engage. Thus the question is not if a person matures and grows, but how and in what direction. He confirms that our environments can either hinder or enable growth, and that patterns (or outcomes) of development cannot be altered significantly or accelerated. He clarifies that the processes (the procedures that lead to outcomes) can be hindered, but the basic idea is to work with these processes and not against them. He also helpfully reminds us that development is not linear for any of us, and rarely, if ever moves in a straight line. Rather, personal growth is most often random and uneven. Another insight, which is vital knowledge for educators of any stripe, is to remember that human development is essentially an internal reorganization and construction of how we process our experiences. While developing, we constantly reorder our categories of personal experiences and constantly create new categories. The role of parents, teachers, and mentors is to provide stimuli and guidance for these times of internal readjustment, which prompts even more growth and deeper maturity. Last, he offers the sober reminder that when growth and development stagnate, dysfunction occurs. Theologically speaking, anytime there is stagnation and dysfunction, the will of God is frustrated.22 Given that James Fowler founded the study of faith development theory, his particular work warrants further exploration. His basic assertion is that faith is generic, that all human beings possess some form of faith, and that faith proceeds through some predictable process of development. Even atheists, Fowler argues, have something that provides meaning to their experiences and draws them toward something that moves them deeper toward understanding and commitment. In terms of definitions, Fowler's contention was that beliefs constitute a significant way that faith is expressed, but that the concept of faith has more to do with loyalty and trust. With regard to the life of the Church, and of particular note for this chapter, Fowler insisted that faith is relational (community being central), is expressed in mutual trust, and leads to both being and doing. Faith is both held and acted upon. His research led him to believe that faith developed through six identifiable stages, congruent with chronological age and maturation, with each stage advancement progressing into a deeper and more comprehensive trust and greater flexibility. He found that the stages were invariant, that is, everyone passed through the same stages. He found that the stages were sequential, that is, they occur in the same order for every person. He also found that the stages were hierarchical, that is, each stage builds upon the previous stages. Having said this, he was also clear that not everyone progressed through all six stages. In fact, his research determined that most adults in the United States remain at stages three or four. His theory is extremely helpful in this discussion because it suggests that faith has the potential to grow throughout the human life span, and that congregations can create intentional programming to encourage that growth.23 /HDUQLQJ6W\OHV There is a rapidly growing body of research, and much written in recent years about learning styles and the methods used in teaching to various learning modalities. The traditional view of teaching was that everyone learned essentially the same way and the students took in information following a similar linear pattern: the teacher taught by presenting information; students took notes; teachers interacted with students by asking teacher-directed questions about the information that was presented; students were tested by repeating the information as a way of showing that they had learned the content of the instruction. Educators now have deeper appreciation for the fact that students receive and process information quite differently. Some naturally prefer visual cues, some verbal or auditory cues, some are kinesthetic learners and prefer to touch, feel, and experience. While all of us in fact prefer some blend of these modalities, in general, visual learners constitute approximately 40%, auditory learners constitute 20%, and tactile–kinesthetic learners constitute the other 40% of students. It is also interesting to note that, while 70% of all students have strong modality preferences, the other 30% can stay focused, without regard to modality, as long as they remain interested.24 'LDJUDPRI/HDUQLQJ6W\OHV VHHS Figure 11.1 How students learn today. Source: Graph data from Michael J. Anthony, Introducing Christian Education: Foundations for the 21st Century (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001), 136. The challenge for educators, both inside and outside the Church, is to honor preferred learning styles by offering congruent teaching methods. When these efforts are made, amazing things can happen. When efforts are not made, some students will likely be left behind. The sad fact is that students can quickly convince themselves that they are either smart or not smart and it is nearly impossible to overcome that initial impression. “One public elementary school teacher once quipped, ‘It takes no time at all for a child to understand the difference between being assigned to the Robin Reading Group or the Buzzard Reading Group.’”25 The challenge for church educators is to find a way to teach all those different learning styles in one classroom. In addition to always finding ways to speak, show, and actively engage and experience particular content, Michael Anthony, in his book Introducing Christian Education, offers a four-step natural learning process that moves beyond basic modalities to address different types of learners. He suggests that all four steps be considered in every lesson that is prepared. The first group and step one is addressed to collaborative learners. The key question in this step is Why do I need to know this? It is important for collaborative learners to start with something they already know, and then seek to connect any new information to that past knowledge or experience. The second group and step two is addressed to analytic learners. The key question in this step is What new things do I need to know? This group needs to learn something new in every lesson or gain some new perspective on something they already know. The third group and step three is addressed to common sense learners. The key question in this step is How does this work? This group seeks application of the content they are receiving. The fourth group and final step is addressed to dynamic learners. The key question in this step is What can this become? This future oriented group has the potential to lead the entire class in finding creative ways to use what they have learned.26 Realizing that almost every classroom, at any given time, consists of students who possess a variety of preferred learning styles, the goal is to consistently and intentionally offer a blend of approaches and teaching methods with the hope of making a substantive and meaningful connection. *HQHUDWLRQDO6WXGLHV Another area with an extensive and growing body of writing that provides some basic clues about the people we are called to serve comes from the field of generational studies. This approach provides yet another way of seeking to understand and effectively teach God's multigenerational people. While the developmental approach looks at life span, and sociologists look at social grouping, and psychologists study personality and attitudinal categories, the generational perspective seeks to identify the values, beliefs, and actions of certain segments of society. It seeks to ask why certain generational groups believe and act in identifiable ways and in identifiable patterns. Although somewhat vague and imprecise, a “generation can best be defined as a group of people born within a span of about twenty-two years (about the length of time from a mother's birth until she gives birth).”27 Thus people categorized within a certain generational group are placed there permanently and arbitrarily. Proponents of generational studies contend that this approach provides the strongest basis for generalizing about large groups of people, much stronger than other categories such as race, gender, or geographical region. The common thread, and major determining factor, is their shared experience and memories of that experience, which tend to shape their generational world view. The concept is that a common age combined with a distinct location in history provides a unique shared biography. There have been many attempts over the years to categorize definitively the generations of the twentieth century. In spite of many differences, most keep the number at four, and all mark the beginnings and endings of generations by different historical events or different social circumstances (war, economic crisis, cultural turbulence). By way of example, we will follow the categories popularized by Thomas Rainer. His “Four Bs” generational categories are: Born between 1910 and 1945 Account for 76 million Builders births Born between 1946 and 1964 Account for 77 million Boomers births Born between 1965 and 1976 Account for 44 million Busters births Bridgers Born between 1977 and 1994 Account for 72 million births Those of the builder era, sometimes also called the G.I. Generation, are thus named because they were alive for both world wars. This group also experienced the Great Depression. As a result of this common history they have developed several common characteristics: strong community spirit, strong sense of family (the family unit is important), tend to be well organized, highly structured, left-brained, friendly, and optimistic. They tend to be in stable marriages and exhibit a can-do pragmatic spirit. They generally rely on intellectual reason to acquire information and less so on emotional or kinetic resources. The boomer era, named for the largest number of births in the last century, were mostly raised by stay-at-home mothers and lived through the Vietnam War and Woodstock, and the anti-authoritarian and countercultural era that followed. More self-centered than their builder parents, this generation has a strong independent spirit which has contributed to the rise of New Age Spirituality and the Self-Help Movement. They tend to be idealists, champions of causes such as world peace, ending poverty, and creating utopian communities where all of this can be accomplished. Wanting to give more to their children than they felt they received, this generation values a strong work ethic, and a willingness to sacrifice for the welfare and safety of their children. Rejecting many of the values of their parents, boomers have the highest divorce rate ever experienced in the United States. The subsequent fragmentation and blending has led to a new and much broader definition of what constitutes a family. Boomers value excellence in education and expect a high level of personal choice in practically every aspect of their lives. The busters, named for the sharp decline in births, have also been called Generation X (or simply Gen X) because they do not fit easily into any particular category. Trending away from the idealism of boomers, they nevertheless cherish individualism, share a declining view and increased suspicion of institutions, and have a practical approach to life. Busters are ravenous consumers, particularly of technical gadgets. Raised in technology-rich environments, they tend to have shorter attention spans and prefer fast-paced, eye-catching forms of information and entertainment. This group would rather go to the movies than read a book. They are generally pleasure seekers and passive learners, preferring a multi-media presentation of information that includes all three learning modalities (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic). Less biblically literate than the generations before, this group is however open to biblical truth if it can be immediately and practically applied to everyday life. Unlike their forbears who were comfortable with traditional forms of authority found in the Church and in Scripture, and who were moved by well- reasoned intellectual arguments, this generation respond more easily to stories, based in experience, easily applicable, and deeply rooted in the context of everyday life. The bridgers, or millennials, are the transition generation linking the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. This is a huge group and a work in progress in terms of identifiable categories and definitive traits. However, some things are clear. This is a multiracial and multicultural cohort. The pulse of this generation runs fast. With little connection to the twentieth century, this group is bombarded by images and technology, is fragmented in terms of focus, and is accustomed to constant change. One major concern about this generation is that this group has been shaped into consumers from birth, well before having the ability to make ethical decisions based on the formation of beliefs and values. One result of this phenomenon is that nothing seems to shock them. As movies, television, and social media continue to push the boundaries of what is acceptable, there is little push back, complaint, or protest. When such disturbing material and content becomes normalized, it is increasingly difficult to discern the difference between what is right and what is wrong. While there is much to appreciate about generational studies in terms of the challenges and opportunities facing the mainline Church, it is also important to maintain perspective. This approach is based largely on subjective and anecdotal evidence, is not based on empirical research, and does not take into consideration important societal descriptors (such as race, ethnicity, economic status). Nor does it include in its theoretical framework the important role of family influence. Yet in spite of all this, generational studies provide an invaluable reminder that the Church must be a student of culture, especially when thinking about our approach to Christian education and formation in an ever-changing world. It is wise to gather insights from these theories, while at the same time being aware of their limitations.28 (GXFDWLRQDQG)RUPDWLRQLQWKH6PDOO&KXUFK Highlighted in our chapter on church growth and evangelism is the fact that small churches (those averaging fewer than 100 at worship) make up the majority of mainline congregations. Given the predominance of small congregations, their longevity, their stability, and their potential for growth, it makes sense to focus part of our discussion on the unique opportunities for faith development in small churches. The one great misconception is that the small church is merely a scaled down version of a larger one. This false impression has led many pastors to try to adopt the practices of larger churches, which usually leads only to frustration and dissatisfaction. In reality, the small church is governed by a completely different set of congregational dynamics. Small congregations are both quantitatively and qualitatively different. In her helpful book, Christian Education in the Small Membership Church, Karen Tye describes six qualities that exemplify the small church: (i) there is a strong sense of community; (ii) they function like a family; (iii) traditions run deep; (iv) there is a high percentage of participation; (v) there is a simplified organizational structure; and (vi) worship is the primary activity.29 Of these, we believe that the key dynamic and the primary operating principle is that the small church functions like a family. The old adage about small churches says that they are “hard to get into and even harder to get out of” and this is due mostly to strong family bonds that hold them together.30 Attendance in the small congregation is not only a Christian duty, but a family obligation. The strength of this familial bond makes the small church extremely effective in transmitting faith as part of its cultural norms. The success and longevity of a small church pastor is determined by how well they become a part of the family, and not because of any particular pastoral or professional skill. The key to any approach to education and formation in the small church is to build on the existing tradition, to start with what already exists. Change must be evolutionary and not revolutionary and begins with the building of trust and relationships, as well as learning, honoring, and respecting the tradition and culture that are already in place.31 A pastor will be effective in leading a small congregation by understanding and valuing their preferences, by working within existing traditions to generate new ideas, and by being patient to allow new ideas to take root and new traditions to emerge. It is important to know that even the slightest change is invariably viewed as threatening and that faithfulness and perseverance are essential.32 $/LIHRI)DLWK Now we have come full circle and return to the fundamental question that began this chapter, how does one embrace a life of faith? And we now add the corollary how do we assist others in this process? To help answer these questions we also return to our three central themes: the domestic Church (the role of parents, family, and households), the practice of Christianity (developing daily patterns), and the congregation (being part of a worshipping community of faith). Reminded that this is ultimately the Spirit's work, we believe that these three, taken together, offer an effective guide to shaping and sharing a Christian life. An important voice in this particular conversation in mainline Christianity is that of Craig Dykstra, an ordained Presbyterian minister and scholar in the field of practical theology and pastoral ministry. In his book Growing in the Life of Faith, Dykstra observes that people learn to play baseball by playing baseball, and he contends that the same is true for learning a life of faith. People come to faith by practice and it is the goal of education and formation to teach these practices which include: corporate worship; telling the Christian story together; interpreting Scripture and the history of the Church; praying; reconciliation; acts of service; giving generously; suffering with and for others; showing hospitality; working for justice and peace; to name only a few. He believes that people come to faith, grow in faith, and are sustained in faith by participating in these practices. He reminds us that whether practiced individually, as a household, or as a congregation these are the practices of the whole Church of God. He also cautions that faith does not simply spring up, that these practices are learned over time and there is no one single practice that is central to obtaining faith. In the end, he concludes, faith is not a task to be accomplished but rather a life to be lived.33 Dykstra's work is also helpful in understanding the household or family dimension of this framework of faith. He defines a family as “people who make promises to each other,” and goes further to say, “when we see what the promises are we see what the family is.”34 Families are linked by birth, adoption (in the broadest sense of that word), or by marriage. Meant to be an inclusive term, his definition includes both the married and unmarried, those with or without children, and even those living alone (just because we are linked to others does not mean that we live under the same roof). Promises are important to families because they connect us as part of a human matrix. He goes further to add that it is the promise making and not necessarily the promise keeping that constitutes family, and believes that families are held together by commitments and not necessarily by success. Families fail for all sorts of reasons, sometimes our own doing and sometimes due to circumstances beyond our control, but Dykstra contends that it is not the failure to keep promises that destroys families but the failure to keep making promises.35 And it is precisely here, in the context of a promise making family, where the Christian practices, which belong to the whole worshipping community, are shared within the family and nurtured in individual members. We offer Dykstra the last word: In my view, an essential task of education in faith is to teach all the basic practices of the Christian faith. The fundamental aim of Christian education in all its forms, varieties, and settings should be that individuals – and indeed whole communities – learn these practices, be drawn into participating in them, learn to do them with increasingly deepened understanding and skill, learn to extend  them more broadly and fully in their own lives and into their world, and learn to correct them, strengthen them, and improve them.36 1RWHV 1. Ronald T. Habermas, Introduction to Christian Education and Formation: A Lifelong Plan for Christ-Centered Restoration (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 17. 2. Ibid., 17. 3. Ibid., 13–14. 4. Karen Tye, Basics of Christian Education (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2000), 1–3. 5. Ibid., 23. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 10–13. 8. Ibid., 93–117. 9. Kenda Creasy Dean, “Faith, nice and easy: The almost Christian formation of teens,” Christian Century, August 10, 2010, vol. 127, no. 16, 22–27. 10. Michael J. Anthony, Introducing Christian Education: Foundations for the 21st Century (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001), 14. 11. Ibid., 27. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., 33. 14. Ibid., 46. 15. Ibid., 46–51. 16. Norma Cook Everist, The Church as Learning Community: A Comprehensive Guide to Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2002), 9. 17. Mark F. Bozzuti-Jones, Informed by Faith (Cambridge, MA: Cowley Publications, 2004), 8–24. 18. Ibid., 30. 19. Ibid., 31. 20. Ibid., 36. 21. See John M. Dettoni, and James C. Wilhoit, Nurture that is Christian: Developmental Perspectives on Christian Education (Ada, MI: Bridgepoint Books, 1995). 22. Habermas, Introduction to Christian Education, 81. 23. Anthony, Introducing Christian Education, 83–88. 24. Ibid., 136. 25. Ibid., 130. 26. Ibid., 130–131. 27. Ibid., 237. 28. Ibid., 237–244. 29. Karen Tye, Christian Education in the Small Membership Church (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2008), 1. 30. Anthony, Introducing Christian Education, 159. 31. Ibid., 160. 32. Ibid., 161. 33. Craig Dykstra, Growing in the Life of Faith, second edition (Louisville, KY: Geneva Press, 1999), 42–44. 34. Ibid., 97. 35. Ibid., 110. 36. Ibid., 71. $QQRWDWHG%LEOLRJUDSK\ Anthony, Michael J. and Benson, Warren S., Exploring the History and Philosophy of Christian Education (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2003). This broad study of the history of Christian education stretches back to the Old Testament to the turn of the twenty-first century and reaches into the future. The goal is to apply historical wisdom to the current issues and practice of the ministry of Christian education. Anthony, Michael J., Introducing Christian Education: Foundations for the 21st Century (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001). A thorough compendium of many sources and contributors on key facets of Christian education, this text includes both a history of general Christian education plus basic mechanics. Later portions of the book apply theology and theory to practical education. Astley, Jeff, The Philosophy of Christian Religious Education (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, Inc., 1994). Based on the assumption that philosophy is the basic foundation to the practice and theory of religious education, this volume interprets and offers helpful insights into current major issues facing religious education form a philosophical perspective. Bozzuti-Jones, Mark F., Informed by Faith (Cambridge, MA: Cowley Publications, 2004). Designed as a catalyst for conversation between religious educators and parents, and for the spiritual refreshment of both, this book examines the history of education in faith communities (African, Asian, and Jewish traditions) and offers a helpful perspective of the role of children in education (as both student and teacher). Cram, Ronald H., ed., Understanding Trends in Protestant Education in the Twentieth Century (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1998). This clinical text is an introduction to the central ideas of twentieth-century Protestant religious education theory and the major theorists, and is also a reflection on the current purpose and understanding of religious education. Dykstra, Craig, Growing in the Life of Faith, second edition (Louisville, KY: Geneva Press, 1999). Written from the Presbyterian and Reformed traditions, this second edition explores the traditions and practices that help people grow in faith and then helps apply them to the Church in the diverse, modern world. Everest, Norma Cook, ed., Christian Education as Evangelism (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2007). This text, written from a Lutheran perspective, connects solid Christian education to evangelical outreach, and takes a practical approach that incorporates stories, reflections in the development of parish programs, and strategies. Everest, Norma Cook, The Church as Learning Community: A Comprehensive Guide to Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2002). At its best, every congregation is a community of teachers and learners. This comprehensive book explores this notion in depth and puts forth a vision of the entire congregation as a learning community. Habermas, Ronald T., Introduction to Christian Education and Formation: A Lifelong Plan for Christ-Centered Restoration (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008). This Christocentric approach to Christian education focuses on the application of Christ's earthly example. Building on the work of others he outlines the text with five global tasks of Christian education and formation: education for evangelism; education for fellowship; education for service; education for kingdom consciousness; and education for worship. Osmer, Richard R., The Teaching Ministry of Congregations (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005). In this dense and data-filled text, the author applies practical theology to the ministry of teaching. This book also takes a more global perspective to the study of Christian education. Osmer, Richard R. and Schweitzer, Friedrich, Religious Education between Modernization and Globalization: New Perspectives on the United States and Germany (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003). Looking at issues of modernization, globalization, and postmodernism through a unique comparative and global perspective, this impressive book studies religious education in various contexts, and charts a path to identifying and addressing issues facing the Church in the modern world. Parrett, Gary A. and Kang, S. Steve, Teaching the Faith, Forming the Faithful: A Biblical Vision for Education in the Church (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2009). Written as a faithful response to the decline of Christian education and spiritual formation, the authors seek to address both the content and process of religious education by developing a “core curriculum” and addressing the “method” or “process” of faith formation that is not simply catechesis. Powers, Bruce P., ed., Christian Education Handbook: A Revised and Completely Updated Edition (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 1995). This book, written by and for Christian educators, provides a comprehensive resource for the principles and the practice of Christian education in congregational settings. Tye, Karen, Basics of Christian Education (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2000). Addressing the vital areas of how to build and maintain a quality Christian education program, this practical book is a concise, practical, and easy-to-use guide. Questions and exercises conclude each chapter to help with application to a particular context for ministry. Tye, Karen, Christian Education in the Small Membership Church (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2008). This book is part of series on ministry in small congregations and challenges the notion that small churches are at a disadvantage to larger, program churches in terms of the task of Christian formation. It is written for those serving in the context of small membership churches.  0XVLFDQG+\PQRG\ While it is true that Christian worship can and does exist in the absence of music, it is also true that every vibrant and growing Christian community has music at the core of its common life. This chapter explores the nature and importance of music in Christian worship, the history and development of music in the life of the church, the form and shape of hymns and religious songs, the tension between traditional and contemporary forms of music in worship, the role of the church musician, as well as the emergence and influence of the music of global Christianity in mainline worship. At the outset, it is important to state the obvious. Any conversation about music, and even our language in describing music, is tainted with judgment and personal bias. Yet more than simply a matter of taste or personal preference, the music of the Church has the sole task of offering praise and worship to God. The goal of this chapter is not to define “good” or “bad” church music, nor is it to definitively decide between old and new forms of musical expression, nor is it an attempt to create a set of universal standards to discern the suitability of music for use in the church. Rather, our hope is to present an overview of historical and current issues that will encourage faithful conversations about church music within congregations. While some congregations are able to produce the highest quality of musical expression, we believe that every church has within it the God-given resources to offer music that encourages worship and is pleasing to God. As is often the case, we sometimes do not grasp the value of something until we are deprived of it. This could certainly be said of music in the church. While some traditions forbid the use of music altogether, or at least avoid some forms of musical expression, the churches of the mainline are filled with music. This raises the question of why music is so essential to Christian worship and points to the underlying question regarding the purpose of music in a liturgical setting. :K\:H6LQJ James White, a leading liturgical historian, observes that practically “every choir room has a sign quoting Augustine to the effect that whoever sings prays twice.”1 Affirming the truth of that statement, he expounds on the idea that music offers an additional dimension to worship. Singing requires a deeper level of listening and also requires a deeper awareness and consciousness of what one is doing while singing. Music is a more expressive medium than ordinary speech and can convey greater intensity of feeling. The use of pitch, melody, harmony, tempo, and volume can express a broad range of depth and emotion and adds value to worship. He cautions that although the creation of beauty can be a byproduct of musical offerings, this is not the goal of worship. The primary criterion, he contends, is not the creation of beauty, but rather the dignity of expression.2 We sing and make music in the church for the expressed purpose of praising and giving thanks to God. Singing for oneself involves more active participation on the part of the worshiper than listening to someone else sing, no matter how talented they may be. Congregational singing gives everyone the opportunity to offer to God the best sounds that they can create and this offering cannot be adequately replaced by the efforts of another. Fortunately in the church there does not have to be a choice between the two since we often have both.3 The function of choral music in worship is a fundamental question. The answer to the question determines the best use and placement of a congregational choir. For instance, if the purpose of choral music is to share the Ministry of the Word, perhaps the best placement of the choir is in the front, facing and singing to the congregation. If the purpose of the choir is to create beauty, they will be singing for the congregation and their placement is irrelevant as long as the choir can be heard. In most mainline congregations, the role of the choir is to support and encourage congregational singing and this is best accomplished by being placed behind or within the congregation. White suggests that perhaps the best solution, where reasonably applicable, is the old basilica model that places the choir in the front of the nave with the congregation on three sides. This positioning has the advantage of being able to accommodate all three choral functions.4 $%ULHI+LVWRU\RI/LWXUJLFDO0XVLF To further explore the role and function of music in Christian worship, a broad and brief overview of the history and development of music in the life of the Church will shed some light on current practice and also highlight issues that continue to challenge us today. We begin with the early Church, whose sounds have “vanished irretrievably beyond the range of our ears.”5 In fact, since musical notation was not invented until the eleventh century, we are unable to recreate the music of the entire first half of the Christian era. Before that time the music was passed on by oral tradition and memory. There are certainly New Testament citations that reference singing, among them Paul's famous admonition that rather than getting drunk with wine, Ephesian Christians should be filled with the Spirit, “as you sing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs among yourselves, singing and making melody to the Lord in your hearts, giving thanks to God the Father at all times and for everything in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Ephesians 5:18–20). We can make reasonable guesses about the content of those psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs that were shared in the early Church, but have no idea how they sounded. We can, however, learn a great deal about early Christian musical thought by exploring the writings of that time. What is most striking about this exploration is the realization that conflict over music goes back to the earliest Christians. In his insightful and thoughtful book, A New Song for an Old World: Musical Thought in the Early Church, Calvin R. Stapert suggests that retrieving the voices of the early Church has particular relevance to us today and makes the point that the circumstances of their times and ours are remarkably similar. For instance, in researching the main developments in musical thought in the second and third centuries, he compares the writings of Clement of Alexandria (ca. 150–215 CE), a Greek who was kindly disposed to the assimilation of Greek thought in the evolution of the Church, with Tertullian (155–240 CE), who was Latin speaking and absolutely opposed to the Church's acceptance and appropriation of anything pagan, including Greek philosophy. While the contrast between these two positions is quite stark, and that of other early Church figures less pronounced, there nevertheless developed remarkable consistency in their views of music in terms of what was acceptable and what was unacceptable.6 Generally speaking, there was a widely accepted polemic against pagan influence. Even Augustine, who loved music and wrote of its power to delight and inspire, also wrote of its dangers and warned that Christians should not turn to pagan “theatrical frivolities to discover whether anything valuable for spiritual purposes is to be gathered from their harps and other instruments.”7 He is particularly worried about the power of the attraction of music and the problem of sensual pleasures, that for Augustine, included pleasures of the ears. He was also troubled that music, which he considered a form of rhetoric, could be used to dazzle people with elegance rather than truth.8 Thus there was always the potential for sinning while enjoying seemingly innocent pleasures. Augustine, by his own experience, knew of our human proclivity to fall in love with the good things in life as if they were ultimate goods. In terms of church music, he points directly to the heart of the problem and warns that delight in music should not be an end in itself but rather a means to inspire love that points beyond itself to the love of God, the source of all good things.9 We can be relieved that our early forebears did not reject music completely, but shared a particular enthusiasm for psalmody and hymnody. Their affirmation of these musical forms is proof that they, in spite of their misgivings, had a great appreciation for the use of music in worship. For them, music was a gift and was to be taken seriously and yet they retained their endorsement only for its proper use. Later in this chapter we will again take up the issue of the inherent conflict that continues to be debated between appropriate forms and expressions of church music, including the persistence of secular influences, yet at this point we return to the history and development of liturgical music. In the first three centuries it is fairly certain that not only was music an integral part of Christian worship, but also it was the possession of the whole worshiping community. It was not until after 313 CE and the conversion of Constantine that worship in general and music specifically would take on more complicated forms. For instance, the use of musical instruments to support congregational singing began to be accepted as long as those instruments were free from any association with pagan rituals. Another related issue that needed to be resolved was whether or not women would be allowed to sing in church. Again, because the association with the popular use of female voices in pagan rites, the practice was slow to gain acceptance.10 It was not until later in the fourth century that the role of cantor (a soloist who could lead congregational singing) began to emerge, later still for the emergence of a choir. It was the Middle Ages and the monastic development of musical notation that brought significant advances in the realm of church music. The monastic rule of life brought sung daily prayers to the tradition. This included the communal singing of the psalms, liturgical texts, and the use of canticles (biblical texts set to music). These daily liturgies took place in a part of the church that would become known as “the choir”; that is, two parallel sections of seats facing each other, divided by an aisle. This configuration leant itself to the creation of a liturgical dialogue that included singing the psalms antiphonally (two semi-independent groups singing alternate musical phrases). In terms of musical style, Gregorian chant (simple and ascetic unison singing) was the first to emerge. This was followed in the late Middle Ages by polyphony (multiple voices singing simultaneously). The Reformation brought an explosion of expression that ranged from the complete abolition of music in the church, to the use of only the human voice with no instrumentation, to liturgies that were sung entirely. It was Martin Luther, himself a hymn writer, who recognized the enormous potential of music to exemplify the theology of “the priesthood of all believers.” The liturgy and music that had become the exclusive property of the learned clergy, in a language unfamiliar to the people, could now once again belong to the whole body of the faithful and invite their full participation in worship.11 It took a while, of course, for new liturgical freedoms to be embraced, encouraged, and enjoyed. Initially it was only the psalms that were to be sung by the congregation. In most parts of post-Reformation Europe the state of congregational singing must have been abysmal. In England, very few congregants owned psalm books and it seems that those who did would often neglect to bring them to church. It was the parish clerk who was counted upon to have a copy and to lead the singing using a method that would become known as “lining out.” The clerk would read out a line of the psalm that would then be repeated back, sung in unison, and then the clerk would move on to the next and then the next until completed. There was no musical direction or notation, and the singing was undisciplined and painfully slow. “One writer tells of a vicar who, having left his sermon behind, announced a psalm, walked half a mile home and back and returned to find his congregation still singing the same psalm.”12 But things were about to change. It was Isaac Watts (1674–1748) who, appalled at the state of congregational psalm singing, encouraged the Church to move beyond the psalms and toward hymn singing, yet with new words and the use of more familiar and even popular tunes. He set a new standard by introducing the idea that hymns can be evangelical, meaning inclusive of the New Testament, that hymns can be freely composed and not strictly bound to biblical texts or paraphrases of biblical texts, and that hymns can express the thoughts and feelings of the singers themselves. These revolutionary ideas were adopted by John (and especially) Charles Wesley, who transformed congregational singing by making Church hymnody accessible to the people in the pew regardless of their education or background. Their efforts in compiling A Collection of Hymns for the Use of the People Called Methodists was intended to serve as a supplemental resource to the established Church, yet fueled a movement that would lead to the establishment of a new denomination. At issue were essentially those who preferred to express their faith on an emotional level and used these hymns as a means of conversion, and those who preferred a more intellectual expression of faith. The publishing of the hymn collection was an attempt by the Wesley brothers to exert some control over the growing movement. Their hope was to keep hymn singing from becoming an “orgy of emotion,” to provide authorized tunes and texts, and to keep Christ at the center of the hymns.13 As a result of their efforts, hymn singing became widely popular and their profound influence continues. Another important influence on musical expression in the mainline is the experience and contribution of the Black Church. The experience of slaves “who took on the profaned religion of the master and transformed it” articulates the faith of an oppressed people and led to the creation of spiritual hymns that were themselves a means of liberation.14 In contrast to John and Charles Wesley (whose hymns reflected the need for followers to acknowledge their sinfulness, accept the grace of God as mediated through Jesus Christ, and retreat from the world into the fellowship of Christ's people) the spirituals of the slave tradition acknowledged the slave as a beloved child of God who needed saving, not from themselves and not from the world, but from slavery. The Wesleys longed for freedom from the world, the spirituals hoped for freedom in this world and the next.15 -RKQ:HVOH\ V'LUHFWLRQVIRU6LQJLQJ As found in the preface to his Select Hymns from 1761, John Wesley was fond of directing explicitly how to sing and perform these songs of praise: I. Learn these Tunes before you learn any others; afterwards learn as many as you please. II. Sing them exactly as they are printed here, without altering or mending them at all; and if you have learned to sing them otherwise, unlearn it as soon as you can. III. Sing All. See