3. SOCIAL PERCEPTION PP 2019.pdf

CHAPTER 3 SOCIAL PERCEPTION: PERCEIVING AND UNDERSTANDING OTHERS BY: NUR HAFIDAH ABD KADIR  SOCIAL PERCEPTION Nonverbal Communication Attribution Attitude DEFINITION OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION The process through which we seek to know and understan...

CHAPTER 3 SOCIAL PERCEPTION: PERCEIVING AND UNDERSTANDING OTHERS BY: NUR HAFIDAH ABD KADIR  SOCIAL PERCEPTION Nonverbal Communication Attribution Attitude DEFINITION OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION The process through which we seek to know and understand other persons.  NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION DEFINITION communication between individuals involving an unspoken language of facial expressions, eye contact, body movements and postures information conveyed by cues other than content of spoken language, as well as our efforts to interpret it THE BASIC CHANNELS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 1. Facial Expressions 2. Eye Contact 3. Body Movements 4. Posture 5. Touching FACIAL EXPRESSIONS ‘THE FACE IS THE IMAGE TO THE SOUL’ -CICERO FACIAL EXPRESSIONS ARE UNIVERSAL EYE CONTACT VS  EYE CONTACT High level of eye contact with others is interpreted as a sign of liking or positive feelings such as high level of gazing EXCEPTION - Staring  BODY MOVEMENTS Body language is a cues provided by position, posture and movement of other’s bodies or body part. Moods or emotions are often reflected in the position, posture, and movement of our bodies which we called body language.  EMBLEMS Emblems are body movements that carry specific meanings in a given culture  POSTURE Posture provides information about our emotion and even apparent traits. A research has shown that a group of ballet dancers who played dangerous or threatening roles would show more diagonal or angular postures whereas a group of ballet dancers who played warm and sympathetic roles would show more rounded postures. These findings indicate that large-scale body movements or postures can sometimes provide important information about people’s emotions and their apparent traits.  TOUCHING Touching can suggest friendliness, affection, sexual interest, dominance, caring or aggression. The meaning of a touch depends on various factors;  TOUCHING 1) Who does the touching?  TOUCHING 2) The nature of the physical contact?  TOUCHING 3) The context the touching takes place?  RECOGNISING DECEPTION Eye Contact -Persons who are lying often blink more often and show Interchannel pupils that are more Discrepancies dilated Exaggerated Facial Expressions -inconsistencies between nonverbal -smiling more than cues from different usual basic channels How can Aspect of Speech Microexpression we tell -high pitching voice -fleeting facial when expressions -more hesitate others are manner lying? ATTRIBUTION  DEFINITION Attribution is the process through which we seek to identify the causes of others behaviour and so gain knowledge of their stable traits and dispositions.  THEORY OF CORRESPONDENT INFERENCE We are most likely to conclude that others’ behaviour reflects their stable traits (i.e. we are likely to reach correspondent inferences between their behaviour and their personal qualities), when their behaviour: KELLEY’S COVARIATION THEORY Kelley believed that there were three types of causal information which influenced our judgments. Low factors = person (i.e. internal) attribution. High factors = situational (i.e. external) attribution. Consistency: the extent to which the person behaves like this every time the situation occurs. How consistent is the person’s behaviour in this situation? Distinctiveness: the extent to which the person behaves in the same way in similar situations. How specific is the person’s behaviour to this particular situation? Consensus: the extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar situation. To what extent do others in this situation behave similarly?  EXAMPLES Consider a given example to understand attribution theory. Our subject is called El. His behaviour is sleeping. El is sleeping in LAW036’s class. 1) Consistency: El always sleeps in LAW036’s class. Consistency is high. If El rarely sleeps in LAW036’s class, consistency is low. 2) Distinctiveness: El only sleeps in LAW036’s class. Distinctiveness is high. If El sleeps in other classes as well, distinctiveness is low. 3) Consensus: Everybody in the class is sleeping. Consensus is high. If only El is sleeping, consensus is low.  Consistency: Does this person usually behave this way in this situation? (If yes, we seek an explanation.) YES Distinctiveness: EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (to the person’s situation) YES Does this person behave differently in NO INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (to the person’s disposition) this situation than in others? (high (low distinctiveness) YES distinctiveness) (h igh YE co S ns en Consensus: NO sensus) su s) Do others behave similarly in this con w situation? (lo  ATTRIBUTIONS: SOME BASIC SOURCES OF ERROR The Actor-Observer Effect the tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the behaviour of others mainly to internal (dispositional) causes. Correspondence Bias : The Fundamental Attribution Error the tendency to overlook potential external causes of other person’s behaviour. The Self-Serving Bias tendency to attribute our own positive outcomes to internal causes but negative outcomes to external factors. IMPRESSION FORMATION AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT Impression Impression Formation Management an act presenting a the process through favourable public image which we form of oneself so that others impressions of others will form positive judgments. Techniques; self- enhancement and other- enhancement. Self-enhancement is efforts to boost one’s appeal to others other-enhancement is efforts to induce positive moods or reactions in others. ATTITUDE INTRODUCTION COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components. Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders”. Behavioral component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”. Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”. This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes. TYPES OF ATTITUDE EXPLICIT - Explicit IMPLICIT attitudes are -Unconscious conscious beliefs associations that can guide between decisions and objects and behaviour evaluative response - Controllable - uncontrollable FORMATIONS OF ATTITUDE Attitude is formed through SOCIAL LEARNING - a process through which we acquire new information, forms of behaviour or attitudes from other people. Most of our attitude will be based from out observation towards some situation Three types of formation of attitude; 1) Classical conditioning 2) Instrumental conditioning 3) Observational learning CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Learning by association One stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation of another stimulus IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical conditioning is discovered by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex.  The classic classical conditioning experiment was conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist who studied medicine and physiology but is known to have focused his study on learning. It was conducted on a dog. A tone is sounded just before a dog is given meat powder. This occurs several times. Eventually, conditioning occurs in that the dog salivates just to the bell alone. Of course, the dog salivates instinctively in response to the food, but ‘learns’ to salivate to the sound of the bell, much as you might find your mouth watering at the site, smell, or even memory of your favourite food. Pavlov used this relatively simple experiment as a model for describing much of the automatic or non-conscious learning that occurs in everyday life.  The dogs were demonstrating classical  Classical Conditioning of a Fear Response One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B. Watson's experiment in which a fear response was conditioned in a boy known as Little Albert. The child initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds, the child would cry when the rat was present. The child's fear also generalized to other fuzzy white objects. This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases, a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the dog) can lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs). INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING A learning process first described by B. F. Skinner. Reinforcement or punishment are used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behaviour will occur again in the future. For example, if a student is rewarded with praise every time she raises her hand in class, she becomes more likely to raise her hand again in the future. If she is also scolded when she speaks out of turn, she becomes less likely to interrupt the class. In these examples, the teacher is using reinforcement to strengthen the hand-raising behaviour and punishment to weaken the talking out of turn behaviour. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING People and animals don’t learn only by conditioning; they also learn by observing others. Observational learning is the process of learning to respond in a particular way by watching others, who are called models. Observational learning is also called “vicarious conditioning” because it involves learning by watching others acquire responses through classical or operant conditioning. BANDURA BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT The person best known for research on observational learning is psychologist Albert Bandura, who did some landmark experiments showing that children who watched adults behaving aggressively were more likely to behave aggressively themselves. His most famous experiment was the Bobo doll study. Bandura let a group of kindergarteners watch a film of an adult violently attacking an inflatable plastic toy shaped like Bobo the Clown by hitting it, sitting on it, hammering it, and so forth. He then let the children into a room with Bobo dolls. The children precisely imitated the adult’s behaviour, gleefully attacking Bobo. Their behaviour was a type of observational learning. FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE Self/ego Utilitarian Knowledge defensive Value Self Self expressive expression esteem Impression motivation UTILITARIAN/ADAPTIVE If a person holds and/or expresses socially acceptable attitudes, other people will reward them with approval and social acceptance. For example, when people flatter their bosses or instructors (and believe it) or keep silent if they think an attitude is unpopular. Attitudes then, are to do with being apart of a social group and the adaptive functions helps us fit in with a social group. People seek out others who share their attitudes, and develop similar attitudes to those they like. KNOWLEDGE Knowledge serves the function of attitude because it makes certain things or situations more understandable. Knowledge allows us to predict the characteristics of a person based on the group she/he belongs to. It also helps us to predict their behaviour. For example, knowing that a person is religious we can predict they will practise the religion. SELF/ EGO DEFENSIVE The ego-defensive function refers to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or that justify actions that make us feel guilty. People whose pride have suffered following a defeat in sport might similarly adopt a defensive attitude: “I’m not bothered, I’m sick of rugby anyway…”. This function has psychiatric overtones. Positive attitudes towards ourselves, for example, have a protective function (i.e. an ego-defensive role) in helping us reserve our self-image. VALUE EXPRESSIVE Value-expressive attitudes show who we are, and what we stand for. Example: Physical appearance, the way we talk to others, etc.  IDENTITY/SELF EXPRESSION FUNCTION The attitudes we express (1) help communicate who we are and (2) may make us feel good because we have asserted our identity. Self-expression of attitudes can be non-verbal too such as car sticker, cap, or T-shirt slogan. Therefore, our attitudes are part of our identify, and help us to be aware through the expression of our feelings, beliefs and values. SELF ESTEEM FUNCTION Holding particular attitude can help to enhance feeling of self-worth. Many people get a boost out of believing that the attitudes they hold are the right one  IMPRESSION MOTIVATION People can use attitudes to lead others to have a positive view of themselves PERSUASION WHAT IS PERSUASION? According to Perloff (2003), persuasion can be defined as "...a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behaviours regarding an issue through the transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice.“ It is a process by which a person’s attitudes or behaviour are, without duress, influenced by communications from other people. WHY AND HOW ATTITUDE CHANGE OCCURS? Persuasive message can be processed by two ways: 1. Systematic processing 2. Heuristic processing SYSTEMATIC PROCESSING The attitude change resulted from systematic processing of information presented in persuasive message which requires effort and it absorbs much of our information processing capacity. Example : sales consultant convinces customer if he explains in good way about the product. HEURISTIC PROCESSING Involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts People depend on heuristic cues such as the likeability, attractiveness and expertise of the communicator in forming judgments or opinions. Example: a doctor can easily persuade his patient to take medicine suggested by him. RESISTING PERSUASION Reactance Forewarning Selective avoidance Negative Advance Tendency to reaction to knowledge of direct attention threats to one’s persuasion – away from freedom increase information Choose the resistance that challenges opposite the existing attitudes Counter Individual Arguing Differences Simply demonstrating to People will use any techniques yourself that you can devise a to hold their position and counter-argument makes you views. they might confront the feel confident in your efficacy persuader to get their (the personal belief of preference right capability) to resist persuasion. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.  For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance. HYPOCRISY Publicly show some attitudes and then acting in a way that is INCONSISTENT with these attitudes THE END