The Sounds of English: A Beginner's Guide to Phonetics PDF

The Sounds of English A Beginner's Guide to Phonetics Prof. Reham Khalifa Professor of English Linguistics Faculty of Arts, Damietta University Table of contents Introduction: Phonetics vs. Phonology 2 Major Concepts In Phonology And Phonetics...

The Sounds of English A Beginner's Guide to Phonetics Prof. Reham Khalifa Professor of English Linguistics Faculty of Arts, Damietta University Table of contents Introduction: Phonetics vs. Phonology 2 Major Concepts In Phonology And Phonetics 7 Phonemic Transcription vs. phonetic transcription 20 IPA Symbols 24 The Organs of Speech: The Anatomy of Human Communication 28 What are the phonetic features that are used to describe sounds in general? 40 The Consonants of English 44 Description of English Consonants 62 Problems of Pronouncing English Consonants 71 Vowel Description 79 Problems of Pronouncing English Vowels 90 Syllables 93 Stress 103 Word Stress 104 Sentence Stress 123 Assimilation 127 Understanding Elision 132 Allophonic variation 140 Worksheets 146 1|Page  Introduction Phonetics vs. Phonology Phonetics and phonology are two subfields of linguistics that deal with speech sounds, but they focus on different aspects. Here‘s a detailed breakdown of their differences: 1. Focus of Study:  Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of the physical production, transmission, and reception of speech sounds. It looks at the actual sounds (phones) produced by the human vocal tract, regardless of the language being spoken.  Phonology: Phonology is the study of how sounds function within a particular language or languages. It examines the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds, including how they are organized and used to convey meaning within specific languages. 2. Levels of Analysis (sub-fields):  Phonetics: o Articulatory Phonetics: How speech sounds are produced by the vocal organs. Articulatory phonetics describes speech sounds genetically with respect to the ways by which the vocal organs modify the air stream in the mouth, nose, and throat in order to produce a sound. 2|Page o Acoustic Phonetics: The physical properties of speech sounds, such as frequency, duration, and intensity. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, i.e. the way in which the air vibrates as sounds pass from speaker to listener. A spectrograph is a machine that measures the soundwaves and depicts them as images, called spectrograms or sonograms, showing the duration, frequency, intensity, and quality of the sounds. o Auditory Phonetics: How speech sounds are perceived by the ear and processed by the brain. Auditory phonetics investigates the perception of speech sounds by the listener, i.e. how the sounds are transmitted from the ear to the brain, and how they are processed.  Phonology: o Segmental phonology is based on the segmentation of language into individual speech sounds provided by phonetics. Unlike phonetics, however, segmental phonology is not interested in the production, the physical properties, or the perception of these sounds, but in the function and possible combinations of sounds within the sound system. o Suprasegmental phonology, also called prosody, is concerned with those features of pronunciation that cannot be segmented because they extend over more than one segment, or sound. Such 3|Page  features include stress, rhythm, and intonation (also called pitch contour or pitch movement Phonologists may be interested in Diachronic development of phonology, or they tend to be synchronic. Diachronic (historical) phonologists examine and construct theories about the changes and modifications in speech sounds and sound systems over a period of time. For example, they are concerned with the process by which the English words ―sea‖ and ―see,‖ once pronounced with different vowel sounds (as indicated by the spelling), have come to be pronounced alike today. Synchronic (descriptive) phonologists investigate sounds at a single stage in the development of a language, to discover the sound patterns that can occur. For example, in English, nt and dm can appear within or at the end of words (―rent,‖ ―admit‖) but not at the beginning. 3. Abstract vs. Physical Nature:  Phonetics: Concrete and physical. It deals with measurable properties of sounds and involves direct observation and measurement of sounds.  Phonology: Abstract and mental. It focuses on how the sounds function in a language‘s sound system, including the patterns and rules that govern their use. 4|Page  4. Language-Specific vs. Universal:  Phonetics: Universal. The principles of phonetics apply to all human languages. The sounds studied in phonetics can be produced by anyone with the necessary anatomy.  Phonology: Language-specific. Each language has its own phonological system, including the inventory of phonemes and the rules governing how sounds are used. 5. Examples:  Phonetics: Examining how the sound [p] is produced in terms of airflow, vocal fold vibration, and lip movement.  Phonology: Examining why in English, [p] and [b] are separate phonemes (because "pat" and "bat" have different meanings), but in other languages, they might not contrast meaning. 6. Transcription Systems:  Phonetics: Uses broad transcription (typically with slashes, / /), which focuses on phonemes and omits non-essential details of pronunciation.  Phonology: Uses narrow transcription (typically with brackets, [ ]), which captures fine details of sound production, including aspiration, nasalization, etc. 5|Page  7. Methodologies:  Phonetics: Empirical and experimental. Phonetic analysis often involves recording and measuring sound properties using instruments like spectrograms and analyzing the articulation process.  Phonology: Theoretical and descriptive. Phonologists analyze language data to establish patterns and formulate rules that describe how phonemes function and interact. Summary:  Phonetics deals with the physical aspects of sounds, applicable to all human speech, focusing on how sounds are made, transmitted, and heard.  Phonology deals with the cognitive and abstract rules that govern sound systems in specific languages, focusing on how sounds are structured to convey meaning. 6|Page  Major Concepts In Phonology And Phonetics What is a Phoneme? A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning. For example, in English, the sounds /p/ in ―pat‖ and /b/ in ―bat‖ are separate phonemes because changing one to the other alters the meaning of the word. Characteristics of Phonemes 1. Abstract Representation: Phonemes are not physical sounds but abstract mental categories. They represent a set of sounds that are perceived as equivalent by speakers of a language. 2. Distinctive Function: Phonemes serve to distinguish between words. For instance, the difference between the words ―cat‖ and ―bat‖ is a single phoneme (/k/ vs. /b/). 3. Language-Specific: The set of phonemes varies from one language to another. For example, the phoneme /r/ in English has different realizations in other languages 7|Page Functions of a phoneme 1. Distinguishing Meaning Phonemes differentiate words and meanings. For example, the words ―bat‖ and ―pat‖ differ by a single phoneme (/b/ vs. /p/), which changes the meaning entirely. 2. Building Blocks of Words Phonemes are the fundamental units that combine to form words. Each word is a sequence of phonemes, and changing one phoneme can create a new word. 3. Facilitating Communication By providing a consistent set of sounds, phonemes enable speakers and listeners to understand each other. They form the basis of pronunciation rules and patterns in a language. 4. Supporting Phonological Rules Phonemes help in understanding and applying phonological rules, such as assimilation, where a phoneme changes to become more like a neighboring sound. For example, in English, the /n/ in ―input‖ can be pronounced as /m/ when followed by a /p/ sound. 8|Page 5. Aiding in Language Learning Phonemes are essential for language learners to master pronunciation and comprehension. Recognizing and producing the correct phonemes is a key part of acquiring a new language. 6. Enabling Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phonemes. This skill is crucial for reading and spelling, as it helps learners understand the relationship between sounds and letters. 7. Supporting Morphological Analysis Phonemes play a role in morphology, the study of word formation. Understanding phonemes helps in analyzing how morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) combine to form words. 8. Facilitating Speech Processing Phonemes are used by the brain to process and decode spoken language. They help in segmenting the continuous stream of speech into understandable units. 9|Page  What are Minimal Pairs? Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ by only a single phoneme (sound) and have distinct meanings. These pairs are crucial in phonetics and phonology because they help linguists identify the phonemes of a language. For example: thought/fought/taught//caught/bought Characteristics of Minimal Pairs 1. Single Phoneme Difference: The words in a minimal pair differ by just one sound, whether it is a vowel or a consonant. 2. Distinct Meanings: Despite their phonetic similarity, the words have different meanings. 3. Phonemic Contrast: Minimal pairs illustrate the phonemic contrasts in a language, showing how a change in sound can lead to a change in meaning. Examples of Minimal Pairs Consonant Differences 1. /p/ vs. /b/: o Pat /pæt/ vs. Bat /bæt/ o Cap /kæp/ vs. Cab /kæb/ 10 | P a g e 2. /s/ vs. /ʃ/: o Sip /sɪp/ vs. Ship /ʃɪp/ o Sue /suː/ vs. Shoe /ʃuː/ 3. /f/ vs. /v/: o Fan /fæn/ vs. Van /væn/ o Fine /faɪn/ vs. Vine /vaɪn/ Vowel Differences 1. /iː/ vs. /ɪ/: o Sheep /ʃiːp/ vs. Ship /ʃɪp/ o Beat /biːt/ vs. Bit /bɪt/ 2. /æ/ vs. /ʌ/: o Cat /kæt/ vs. Cut /kʌt/ o Bat /bæt/ vs. But /bʌt/ 3. /eɪ/ vs. /aɪ/: o Mate /meɪt/ vs. Might /maɪt/ o Late /leɪt/ vs. Light /laɪt/ 4. /eɪ/ vs. plaid /æ/ 11 | P a g e o played /pleɪd/ vs. plaid /plæd/ Illusive minimal pairs 1. Near-Minimal Pairs These pairs differ by more than one phoneme or involve additional phonetic differences that disqualify them as true minimal pairs. Example: “Cat” vs. “Scat”  Cat /kæt/  Scat /skæt/ While ―cat‖ and ―scat‖ differ by the presence of /s/, they are not minimal pairs because ―scat‖ has an additional phoneme /s/ at the beginning. 2. Pairs with Allophonic Variations These pairs involve sounds that are allophones of the same phoneme, meaning they do not create a meaningful distinction in the language. Example: “Top” vs. “Stop”  Top /tɑp/  Stop /stɑp/ 12 | P a g e  The /t/ in ―top‖ is aspirated [tʰ], while the /t/ in ―stop‖ is unaspirated [t]. This difference is allophonic and does not change the meaning, so they are not minimal pairs. 3. Pairs with Different Stress Patterns These pairs differ in stress patterns rather than a single phoneme. Example: “Record” (noun) vs. “Record” (verb)  Record (noun) /ˈrɛkɔrd/  Record (verb) /rɪˈkɔrd/ The difference here is in the stress pattern, not a single phoneme, so they are not minimal pairs. 4. Pairs with same pronunciation These pairs involve different morphemes but the same pronunciation. Example: “Cats” vs. “Cat‟s”  Cats /kæts/  Cat‟s /kæts/ 13 | P a g e  What is a cluster? In linguistics, a cluster typically refers to a consonant cluster. This is a group of two or more consonant sounds that occur together without any intervening vowel. Clusters can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a syllable. Examples of Consonant Clusters 1. Clusters at the beginning of the syllable: o /spl/ in ―split‖ o /str/ in ―street‖ 2. Medial Clusters: o /mp/ in ―camping‖ o /nd/ in ―window‖ 3. Clusters at the end of the syllable: o /st/ in ―best‖ o /ld/ in ―cold‖ Phonotactic Constraints Different languages have different rules (phonotactic constraints) about which clusters are permissible. For example, not all possible combinations of consonants occur in a language. Initially 14 | P a g e  in syllables in English, for example, clusters are not possible with [ð], [ dʒ], [tʃ] or [z]. Up to three consonants can occur initially, as in [spr-], [spl-], [skw-]; up to four can occur finally, as in glimpsed [-mpst] and twelfths [-lfθs]. What are Allophones? Allophones are variations of a single phoneme that occur in different contexts but do not change the meaning of a word. They are different sounds that are perceived as the same phoneme by native speakers of a language. Here's a detailed breakdown: Phoneme vs. Allophone 1. Phoneme: This is the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning between words in a language. For example, the English phoneme /p/ can be found in the words "pat" and "bat," where it distinguishes the meaning. 2. Allophone: These are the different sounds or variations of a single phoneme that occur in specific contexts but do not alter the word‘s meaning. For example, the /p/ in "pat" and "spat" are allophones of the same phoneme. They are perceived as the same sound by native speakers despite having different pronunciations. 15 | P a g e  Importance in Phonology Understanding allophones helps in analyzing and describing the phonological system of a language. It reveals how sounds are organized and used in speech, and it aids in understanding the relationship between pronunciation and meaning. In summary, allophones are the different pronunciations of a phoneme that do not affect the meaning of a word. They provide insight into the phonological structure of a language and how sound variations are systematically organized. What is Aspiration? Aspiration is a phonetic phenomenon that refers to the burst of air that is released after the production of certain consonants, typically plosive sounds. When a consonant is aspirated, the release of the articulatory blockage (such as when the lips come apart after saying /p/) is followed by a brief puff of air before the onset of the following vowel or sound. o Aspiration in Phonetics:  Aspiration typically occurs with voiceless plosives such as /p/, /t/, and /k/. These sounds can be pronounced with or without aspiration, depending on the language and phonetic context. 16 | P a g e  The puff of air in aspiration is heard and felt. If you place your hand in front of your mouth while saying an aspirated /p/, like at the start of the word "pat," you will feel the air hit your hand. o Aspiration in English:  In English, voiceless plosives (/p/, /t/, /k/) are typically aspirated at the beginning of words or syllables. For example:  Aspirated: In the words pat [/pʰæt/], top [/tʰɒp/], and cat [/kʰæt/], the initial plosives /p/, /t/, and /k/ are aspirated.  Unaspirated: In words like spin [/spɪn/], stop [/stɒp/], and skate [/skeɪt/], the voiceless plosives after the /s/ are not aspirated.  Aspiration can sometimes be subtle in English, but it doesn‘t generally change the meaning of a word. Aspiration is a phonetic, not phonemic, feature in English. In the following aspirated and unaspirated sounds are presented in examples: (1) Examples of Aspirated stops pool [phuːl] tooth [thuːθ] coop [khu:p] pit [phit] tin [thin] kill [khιl] apply [əˈphlaɪ] atomic [əˈthɒm.ɪk] account [əkhaunt] prawn [phrɔːn] truth [thru:θ] crab [khræb] 17 | P a g e  pat [ph æt] twine [thwaɪn] quill [khwιl] play [phlei] tap [tʰæ p] clay [khlei] puce [ph juːs] top [/tʰɒp/] cube [khju:b] (2) Examples of Unaspirated stops spool [spu:l] stool [stu:l] school [sku:l] spit [spιt] stick [stιk] skid [skιd] sap [sæp] sat [sæt] sack [sæk] spray [sprei] stray [strei] skew [skju:] split [splιt] screw [skru:] Skill [skIl] spew [spju:] still [stIl] Silk [sIlk] Received Pronunciation (RP) It refers to the name given to the regionally neutral accent in British English, historically deriving from the prestige speech of the Court and the public schools. The term indicates that its prestige is the result of social factors, not linguistic ones. RP is in no sense linguistically superior or inferior to other accents: but it is the accent (more accurately: a set of accents) which tends to be associated with the better-educated parts of society and is the one most often cited as a norm for the description of British English, or in teaching that dialect to foreigners. The BBC originally adopted RP for its announcers because it was the form of 18 | P a g e pronunciation most likely to be nationally understood, and to attract least regional criticism – hence the association of RP with the phrase ‗BBC English‘. Accent It refers to the cumulative auditory effect of those features of pronunciation which identify where a person is from, regionally or socially. The linguistics literature emphasizes that the term refers to pronunciation only, and is thus distinct from dialect, which refers to grammar and vocabulary as well. The investigation of the ways in which accents differ from each other is sometimes called accent studies. Diacritic In phonetics, a diacritic is a mark that is added to a symbol to alter the way it is pronounced. Diacritic marks (or ‗diacritics‘) include the various accents (´ ` ^ etc.), and the signs of devoicing [o] and nasalization [~]. 19 | P a g e  Phonemic Transcription vs. phonetic transcription Phonemic transcription and phonetic transcription are both systems used to represent the sounds of speech, but they differ in terms of detail, purpose, and the type of symbols they use. Phonemic transcription helps understand the abstract sound system of a language, while phonetic transcription offers a detailed look at the actual physical realization of speech sounds. Here‘s a detailed comparison of the two: 1. Definition  Phonemic Transcription: Represents the broadest, most general units of sound (phonemes) in a language. Phonemes are the distinct sounds that can change the meaning of a word in a particular language. Phonemic transcription abstracts away from many of the finer details of how a sound is produced.  Phonetic Transcription: Provides a detailed, precise account of how speech sounds (phones) are actually articulated, capturing more specific sound variations. It includes more fine-grained distinctions that may not affect meaning but reflect how the sounds are physically produced by speakers in real speech. 2. Symbols Used  Phonemic Transcription: Typically enclosed in slashes /.../. It uses a subset of symbols, often from the International Phonetic 20 | P a g e  Alphabet (IPA), but only those that are necessary to represent the contrasts between phonemes in a particular language. o Example: In English, the word bat can be transcribed phonemically as /bæt/. This transcription captures only the meaningful differences between sounds.  Phonetic Transcription: Typically enclosed in square brackets [...]. It uses the full range of IPA symbols to show even the subtle differences in pronunciation, including diacritics to show tone, stress, nasalization, aspiration, etc. o Example: The word pen might be transcribed phonetically as [pʰɪn] to show that the /p/ is aspirated. 3. Level of Detail  Phonemic Transcription: (broad transcription) Minimal detail. It only includes distinctions that are important for meaning. Variations in pronunciation that do not change meaning (called allophones) are not marked. o Example: In American English, both aspirated [pʰ] and unaspirated [p] are considered realizations of the same phoneme /p/, so a phonemic transcription of pat is simply /pæt/, without showing aspiration.  Phonetic Transcription: Maximal detail. It captures all sound distinctions, including non-contrastive variations (allophones). It is called Narrow Transcription as it shows very fine details of articulation. 21 | P a g e o Example: The word pat might be narrowly transcribed as [pʰæt]. 4. Purpose  Phonemic Transcription: Focuses on the meaningful sounds in a language and is used to study or describe the sound system of a language at an abstract level. It‘s especially useful for learners of a language to understand the minimal number of sound units they need to know in order to differentiate words.  Phonetic Transcription: Aims to accurately describe how speech sounds are physically produced. It is often used by linguists, speech pathologists, and in detailed linguistic analysis to study variation across speakers, dialects, or contexts, and for more technical or scientific purposes. 5. Example Comparisons Word Phonemic Phonetic Transcription (English) Transcription (Narrow) tap /tæp/ [tʰæp] cat /kæt/ [kʰæt] pure / pjʊər/ [pjjʊər] 6. Variation Across Dialects  Phonemic Transcription: Since phonemes are language-specific, phonemic transcription is generally consistent across speakers of the same language, regardless of their accent or dialect, as long as the same phonemes are used. 22 | P a g e  Phonetic Transcription: Will vary based on the speaker's dialect, accent, or even the context. For example, the word water might be pronounced with a [t] or [d] depending on whether the speaker is from the UK or the US, and phonetically transcribed accordingly. Summary Table: Phonemic Phonetic Aspect Transcription Transcription Broad (focus on Detailed and narrow Scope phonemes) (focus on phones) Enclosure Slashes: /.../ Brackets: [...] Symbols Detailed, often Detail Level Abstract, minimal includes diacritics Show differences in Describe actual sound Purpose meaning production Speaker- or dialect- Consistency Language-specific specific Example /kæt/ [kʰæt] (English "cat") Good for learners to Better for studying Use in Learning understand contrasts pronunciation 23 | P a g e  IPA Symbols IPA symbols are standardized symbols used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to represent the specific sounds (phonemes) of spoken languages. Each symbol corresponds to a single sound, allowing for a consistent and accurate representation of pronunciation across different languages and dialects. The IPA was developed to provide a way to accurately transcribe the sounds of any spoken language, irrespective of the language's writing system. Key Characteristics of IPA Symbols: 1. Uniqueness: Each IPA symbol represents a single, specific sound. For example, the symbol /t/ always represents the voiceless alveolar plosive sound, as in tap, regardless of the language. 2. Universality: The IPA is designed to be used for all languages. It has symbols for sounds found in many languages that may not be represented in standard orthographies (e.g., clicks in African languages). 3. Precision: IPA symbols allow for very detailed transcription, especially in phonetic transcription, where even subtle variations in pronunciation can be indicated, such as aspiration, nasalization, or tone. 4. Symbols from Various Alphabets: While many IPA symbols resemble Latin letters, they are not identical to the alphabetic 24 | P a g e letters. Some are borrowed from Greek (e.g., θ for the voiceless "th" sound in think) or are specially created for the IPA. Here are the IPA symbols for the sounds used in English, organized by consonants, vowels, and diphthongs: 1. Consonants IPA Symbol Example Word /p/ pin /b/ bat /t/ tap /d/ dog /k/ cat /g/ go /f/ fun /v/ van /θ/ think /ð/ this /s/ sit /z/ zoo /ʃ/ ship /ʒ/ measure /h/ hat 25 | P a g e  IPA Symbol Example Word /tʃ/ chair /dʒ/ judge /m/ man /n/ not /ŋ/ sing /l/ lamp /r/ red /j/ yes /w/ win butter (as "bu'er" in some /ʔ/ accents) 2. Vowels IPA Symbol Example Word /i:/ beat /ɪ/ sit /e/ bed, dress /ə/ about /æ/ cat /a:/ start 26 | P a g e  IPA Symbol Example Word /ʌ/ cup /ə/ about /u:/ food /ʊ/ put /ɒ/ lot, hot /ɔ:/ law, thought /ɜː/ nurse, learn 3. Diphthongs IPA Symbol Example Word /aɪ/ time /aʊ/ house /ɔɪ/ boy /ɪə/ near /eɪ/ face /ʊə/ cure /eə/ care /əʊ/ home, go These IPA symbols represent the standard sounds in General American English and Received Pronunciation (RP), but there may be variations depending on the dialect or accent. 27 | P a g e The Organs of Speech: The Anatomy of Human Communication Introduction Speech is one of the most complex and defining features of human communication. At its core, the ability to produce speech relies on a finely tuned interaction between various anatomical structures, often referred to as the "organs of speech." These organs, located in different parts of the body, work in harmony to shape the sounds that form our words, convey meaning, and express emotions. In this chapter, we will explore the anatomy of the organs of speech—how they are structured, how they function, and how they contribute to the production of human language. From the lungs that provide the necessary airflow to the vocal cords that produce sound, and from the intricate movements of the tongue to the modulation of the lips and palate, each component plays a critical role in creating the sounds that make up speech. Understanding the organs of speech is not only essential for linguists, speech therapists, and educators, but it also offers fascinating insight into the biological and mechanical aspects of communication. By the end of this chapter, you will gain a deeper appreciation of how these organs transform mere breath into the intricate tapestry of human language. 28 | P a g e  Organs of speech Figure 1. Organs of speech The organs of speech, also known as the speech organs or articulators, are the parts of the body involved in producing sounds for spoken language. There are two concepts that are used in speech production which are articulation and resonance. Articulation and Resonance  Articulation: Refers to the movement and positioning of the speech organs to produce different sounds. Each sound in language is produced by a specific configuration of these organs. 29 | P a g e  Resonance: Refers to how sound waves are shaped and amplified by the vocal tract, including the pharynx, oral cavity, and nasal cavity. The organs could be categorized into three systems. These systems are explained in the following section. Figure 2. The three systems of the speech production A. Respiratory System Figure 3. The articulatory system 30 | P a g e  This system is responsible for generating the airflow needed for speech production. 1. Lungs  Function: The lungs provide the airflow needed for speech. Air is pushed out of the lungs through the trachea, which serves as the primary source of sound energy. 2. Trachea  Function: The trachea (windpipe) conducts air from the lungs to the larynx and is crucial for breathing and voice production. 3. Diaphragm: The diaphragm plays a fundamental role in speech by controlling the airflow needed to produce sound. While it is not directly involved in the articulation of speech sounds, it serves as the primary muscle of respiration, which is essential for voice production.  Functions:  Breath Support: The diaphragm contracts during inhalation, creating a vacuum in the lungs that allows air to flow in. When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, and air is pushed out of the lungs. This airflow is critical for speech production because it provides the necessary breath pressure for the vocal cords to vibrate and create sound. 31 | P a g e   Controlling Speech Volume: The amount of air pressure generated by the diaphragm affects the volume and intensity of speech. More controlled and forceful exhalation allows for louder speech, while a gentler release of air results in softer speech. The diaphragm helps regulate this airflow to modulate speech volume.  Sustaining Speech: For sustained speech, such as during long sentences or phrases, the diaphragm helps control the steady release of air. This allows speakers to continue speaking without having to take frequent breaths.  Supporting Pitch Variation: The diaphragm contributes to pitch control by adjusting the force of exhalation. Higher pitches may require more air pressure, while lower pitches require less. By controlling airflow, the diaphragm helps maintain the desired pitch during speech or singing. B. Phonatory system This system is responsible for producing sound through vocal cord vibration. 1. Larynx (Voice Box)  Function: The larynx houses the vocal cords (vocal folds), which vibrate to produce sound. The pitch and volume of the sound are controlled by adjusting the tension and length of the vocal cords. 2. Vocal Cords (Vocal Folds) 32 | P a g e  Function: These are two bands of muscle tissue in the larynx that vibrate as air passes through them, creating sound waves. The frequency of these vibrations determines the pitch of the sound. 3. Glottis The glottis is a crucial part of the vocal apparatus located in the larynx (voice box). It refers to the space between the vocal cords (or vocal folds).  Function: it plays a central role in sound production during speech. When air passes through the glottis, the vocal cords can vibrate, creating sound. C. Articulatory system Figure 4. The articulatory system 33 | P a g e 1. Pharynx  Function: The pharynx (throat) acts as a resonating chamber that shapes the sound produced by the vocal cords. It extends from the nasal cavity to the larynx and helps modify the sound before it exits the mouth or nose. 2. Oral Cavity (Mouth) The oral cavity is essential for articulating sounds. It includes the following parts: o Lips: The lips are used to produce sounds by coming together (as in [p] and [b]) or by rounding (as in [w] and [u]). o Teeth: Help in producing certain sounds by providing a surface for the tongue to make contact. o Alveolar Ridge: The bony ridge just behind the upper front teeth, which is important for sounds like [t] and [d]. o Hard Palate: The bony part of the roof of the mouth, which helps in articulating sounds like [ʃ] (as in "shoe") and [ʒ] (as in "measure"). Figure 5. The soft and hard palates 34 | P a g e o Soft Palate (Velum): The soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth. It can move to close off the nasal passages (for oral sounds) or open them (for nasal sounds like [m], [n], and [ŋ]). Figure 6. The airflow when the velum opens the nasal cavity o Uvula: The uvula helps control the flow of air through the oral and nasal cavities. In some languages, certain sounds (called uvular sounds) are produced by the vibration or movement of the uvula. These sounds, like the uvular "r" in French or some Arabic and Hebrew consonants, rely on the uvula's motion. During speech, the uvula works in conjunction with the soft palate to close off the nasal cavity from the oral cavity. This prevents air from escaping through the nose during the articulation of oral (non-nasal) sounds, such as "p," "b," and "t." If the uvula fails to close the nasal passage properly, speech may sound nasalized. The uvula influences the resonance of the voice by affecting the amount of air that resonates in the nasal cavity. By helping to direct airflow, it plays a role in shaping the quality of certain speech sounds. 35 | P a g e o Tongue: The tongue is a highly flexible muscle that can change shape and position to produce different sounds. Its various parts include:  Tip (Apex): The front part of the tongue, used in making sounds like [t] and [d].  Blade: The part just behind the tip, involved in producing sounds like [ʃ].  Body: The central part of the tongue, used in sounds like [k] and [g].  Root: The back part of the tongue, which interacts with the soft palate to produce sounds. Figure 7. The parts of the tongue 3. Nasal Cavity  Function: The nasal cavity can be involved in producing nasal sounds when the soft palate is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose. 36 | P a g e  Exercises 1. What is the primary function of the diaphragm in speech production? A) Articulating sounds B) Controlling airflow and breath support C) Modifying pitch directly D) Producing vocal cord vibrations 2. Which part of the vocal apparatus is responsible for producing voiced sounds by vibrating as air passes through it? A) Glottis B) Tongue C) Soft palate D) Uvula 3. How does the uvula contribute to speech production? A) By controlling airflow through the nasal and oral cavities B) By vibrating to produce consonant sounds C) By helping form vowel sounds D) By generating sound waves 37 | P a g e  4. Which organ of speech helps prevent air from escaping through the nose during the articulation of oral sounds like "b" and "t"? A) Diaphragm B) Glottis C) Soft palate (and uvula) D) Vocal cords 5. What role does the tongue play in speech? A) It primarily controls pitch and loudness. B) It assists in shaping vowel and consonant sounds through its position and movement. C) It vibrates to produce sounds. D) It supports breath control for speech. 6. What happens to the glottis when the vocal cords are fully open? A) No sound is produced, and air passes freely. B) Voiced sounds are created. C) The uvula rises. D) The pitch of the sound is lowered. 38 | P a g e 7. Which of the following speech organs is directly involved in producing uvular sounds, such as the French 'r'? A) Tongue B) Diaphragm C) Uvula D) Glottis 8. How does the soft palate (or velum) influence speech sounds? A) By controlling the pitch of the voice B) By allowing or blocking airflow into the nasal cavity C) By producing vibrations that create voiced sounds D) By helping articulate consonant sounds 9. What is the role of the lips in speech production? A) Modifying pitch and tone B) Assisting in forming certain sounds, especially bilabial sounds like "p" and "b" C) Regulating airflow through the vocal cords D) Shaping sounds produced by the glottis 10. What is the term used for the space between the vocal cords that changes size during speech? A) Uvula C) Diaphragm B) Soft palate D) Glottis 39 | P a g e  What are the phonetic features that are used to describe sounds in general? Describing sounds can be done in various ways depending on the characteristics you want to highlight, such as the quality, pitch, volume, or duration of the sound. Here are several key aspects to consider when describing sounds, particularly in the context of language and speech: 1. Pitch (High or Low)  Definition: Refers to how high or low a sound is.  Example Descriptions: o High-pitched: Shrill, piercing, squeaky (e.g., a whistle or a child‘s voice). o Low-pitched: Deep, rumbling, bassy (e.g., a drum or a man's deep voice). 2. Volume (Loud or Soft)  Definition: Refers to how loud or quiet a sound is.  Example Descriptions: o Loud: Booming, thunderous, blaring (e.g., a loudspeaker or thunder). o Soft: Whispering, muffled, faint (e.g., a gentle breeze or distant conversation). 40 | P a g e 3. Timbre (Tone Quality or Color)  Definition: Describes the unique quality or character of a sound, which distinguishes different voices or instruments.  Example Descriptions: o Bright: Clear, ringing, sharp (e.g., a bell or a clear voice). o Warm: Rich, mellow, smooth (e.g., a cello or a soothing voice). o Nasal: Buzzing, twangy (e.g., some accents or blocked nose speech). 4. Duration (Short or Long)  Definition: Describes how long a sound lasts.  Example Descriptions: o Short: Brief, abrupt, staccato (e.g., a snap or a short note on a piano). o Long: Sustained, drawn-out, prolonged (e.g., a sustained hum or siren). 5. Articulatory features  Definition: Refers to how clearly or distinctly a sound is produced, especially in speech.  Example Descriptions: o Place of Articulation: Where in the vocal tract the sound is produced (e.g., bilabial, alveolar, velar). o Manner of Articulation: How the airflow is manipulated (e.g., stops, fricatives, nasals). 41 | P a g e o Voicing: Whether the vocal cords vibrate (voiced) or not (voiceless). 6. Tempo (Fast or Slow)  Definition: Refers to the speed or pace of the sound, particularly in rhythmic sounds or speech.  Example Descriptions: o Fast: Quick, rapid, brisk (e.g., fast footsteps or rapid speech). o Slow: Leisurely, drawn-out, gradual (e.g., a slow melody or someone speaking slowly). 7. Onomatopoeia (Imitating Sound)  Definition: Words that imitate the actual sound they describe.  Example Descriptions: o Crash: A sudden loud noise, like something heavy falling. o Buzz: The sound made by insects like bees or electronics. o Whisper: A soft, quiet, and breathy sound made by a person. o Boom: A loud, deep, resonant sound, like an explosion. 8. Other Qualities  Breathy: Sound made with a lot of air, such as in whispering or soft singing.  Creaky: A sound like something old and worn, often with irregular vibrations (e.g., creaky door or vocal fry in speech). 42 | P a g e  Clear: A pure and easily understood sound, free from distortion or interference. Example Descriptions in Context:  Speech Example: "Her voice was soft and clear, with a warm, resonant quality that filled the room, even though she spoke at a moderate volume."  Musical Example: "The trumpet‘s bright, sharp tone cut through the orchestra‘s deep, rich resonance."  Environmental Example: "The leaves rustled softly in the breeze, creating a gentle, whispering sound." 43 | P a g e  The Consonants of English There are two good reasons for beginning with consonants rather than vowels. First, consonants contribute more to making English understood than vowels do. Second, consonants are generally made by a definite interference of the vocal organs with air stream, and so are easier to describe and understand. Before describing consonants, we should revise the difference between active articulators and passive articulators. Active Articulators Active articulators are the movable parts of the vocal tract that come into contact with, or move toward, passive articulators to obstruct airflow. These articulators are typically muscles or flexible structures that can be positioned or moved to different places in the vocal tract to create speech sounds. Common active articulators include:  Tongue (most important and versatile active articulator)  Lower lip  Velum (for certain nasal sounds) 44 | P a g e  Passive Articulators Passive articulators are fixed or relatively immobile parts of the vocal tract that active articulators move toward during the articulation of consonants. These are usually more static, and the role of passive articulators is to provide a point of contact or constriction for the active articulator. Common passive articulators include:  Upper teeth  Alveolar ridge (the ridge just behind the upper front teeth)  Hard palate  Velum (can also function as a passive articulator in some contexts)  Uvula (back of the velum)  Pharyngeal wall (back of the throat) In essence, the interaction between active and passive articulators shapes the nature of consonants in terms of where and how they are produced. Criteria for describing consonants There are four criteria which can be used to describe consonant sounds: 1. Place of articulation 45 | P a g e  2. Voicing (Voiced and voiceless sounds) 3. Manner of articulation 4. Nasal vs. oral sounds 1. Place of Articulation The place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract the airflow is obstructed. The common places of articulation include: a) Bilabial Consonants  Active Articulator: Lower lip  Passive Articulator: Upper lip  Example Sounds: /p/, /b/, /m/ In bilabial consonants, the lower lip moves toward the upper lip, creating complete closure (for /p/ and /b/) or allowing air to flow through the nose (for /m/). b) Labiodental Consonants  Active Articulator: Lower lip  Passive Articulator: Upper teeth  Example Sounds: /f/, /v/ For labiodental consonants, the lower lip moves against the upper teeth, creating a narrow passage for airflow, which results in a fricative sound. c) Dental Consonants  Active Articulator: Tip of the tongue 46 | P a g e  Passive Articulator: Upper teeth  Example Sounds: /θ/ (as in "think"), /ð/ (as in "this") In dental consonants, the tip of the tongue moves toward the upper teeth, partially or completely blocking the airflow. d) Alveolar Consonants  Active Articulator: Tip or blade of the tongue  Passive Articulator: Alveolar ridge  Example Sounds: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, /r/ The tongue either touches or comes close to the alveolar ridge in alveolar consonants. For instance, in the production of /t/ and /d/, the tongue makes full contact with the alveolar ridge, whereas in /s/ and /z/, it creates a narrow constriction, allowing air to pass through. e) Postalveolar consonants Post-alveolar sounds are produced with the tongue positioned just behind the alveolar ridge, at the front part of the hard palate. These sounds involve both active and passive articulators. Let's break down their roles:  Active Articulator: Blade or front of the tongue (sometimes the tip or front part of the tongue moves slightly upward)  Passive Articulator: Postalveolar region (the area just behind the alveolar ridge, extending toward the hard palate)  Example sounds: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/ 47 | P a g e  f) Palatal Consonants The tongue comes in contact with the hard palate.  Active Articulator: Front of the tongue  Passive Articulator: Hard palate  Example Sounds: /j/ (as in "yes") f) Velar Consonants  Active Articulator: Back of the tongue  Passive Articulator: Velum (soft palate)  Example Sounds: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ (as in "sing") Velar consonants are articulated when the back of the tongue makes contact with the velum. For instance, in /k/ and /g/, the airflow is completely blocked at the velum before being released. g) Glottal Consonants  Active Articulator: Vocal cords (glottis)  Passive Articulator: None (no direct passive articulator)  Example Sounds: /h/, glottal stop [ʔ] Glottal consonants are produced in the vocal cords themselves. For /h/, there is a constriction of airflow at the glottis without involving other articulators like the tongue or lips. 48 | P a g e 2. Voicing Voicing is a crucial aspect of speech production, distinguishing between sounds that are produced with vocal cord vibration (voiced) and those that are produced without it (voiceless). The process of voicing involves several steps, including the involvement of the vocal cords, the modulation of airflow, and the interaction with other articulatory features. a) Voiced Sounds  Definition: Voiced sounds are produced with vibration of the vocal cords. During the articulation of voiced sounds, the vocal cords come together (adduct) and are set into vibration by the airflow from the lungs.  Characteristics: The presence of vocal cord vibration creates sound waves that are modulated by the vocal tract. Voiced sounds often have a resonance or tonal quality due to this vibration. Figure 8. illustration of voiced sounds 49 | P a g e  b) Voiceless Sounds  Definition: Voiceless sounds are produced without vocal cord vibration. The vocal cords are apart (abduct), allowing air to pass through the glottis freely without causing vibration.  Characteristics: Voiceless sounds rely solely on the turbulence of airflow and the shape of the vocal tract for their sound. They tend to be noisier, or hisser compared to voiced sounds. Figure 9. An illustration of the voiceless sounds 3. Manner of Articulation The manner of articulation refers to how airflow is manipulated by various speech organs (such as the tongue, lips, and velum) during the production of consonant sounds. It describes how a speech sound is made. The manner of articulation plays a key role in distinguishing between different speech sounds. 50 | P a g e a) Plosives (Stops): The terms stops and plosives are often used interchangeably in phonetics, but they can have slightly different meanings depending on the context. Here's a breakdown of the difference: o Stops:  Definition: A stop is a broader category of sounds in which airflow is completely blocked at some point in the vocal tract.  Articulatory Process: The airflow is stopped entirely by the articulators (such as the tongue, lips, or glottis), and this blockage can occur at different places (e.g., in the mouth or at the glottis).  Types:  Oral stops (also called plosives): Airflow is blocked in the mouth, and when released, it creates a sound (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/).  Nasal stops: Airflow is blocked in the mouth but released through the nose (e.g., /m/, /n/, /ŋ/). So, nasal sounds like /m/ and /n/ are also considered stops because the airflow is completely stopped in the oral cavity, even though they aren't plosives. o Plosives:  Definition: A plosive is a specific type of stop where the air is blocked and then released suddenly, causing a burst or explosion of sound. 51 | P a g e   Articulatory Process: The airflow is completely stopped in the oral cavity (not the nasal cavity), and when released, it creates a "burst" or "plosive" sound.  Examples: /p/, /t/, /k/ (voiceless), and /b/, /d/, /g/ (voiced) are all plosives.  Key Feature: Plosives always involve a sharp release of air through the mouth, unlike nasal stops, where air is released through the nose. o Summary of the Difference:  Stops refer to any sound where the airflow is completely blocked, whether it's released through the mouth (oral) or the nose (nasal). This category includes both plosives and nasal stops.  Plosives are a subset of oral stops and involve the sudden release of air through the mouth, resulting in a sharp sound. In short, all plosives are stops, but not all stops are plosives (nasal stops are not plosives). b) Fricatives: Fricatives are produced by forcing air through a narrow constriction in the vocal tract, causing friction or turbulence as the air escapes.  Articulation: The articulators (tongue, lips, or teeth) come close together, but they do not completely block the airflow. Instead, the air passes through a small opening, creating friction. 52 | P a g e  Examples: o Voiceless: /f/ (as in fan), /s/ (as in sun), /ʃ/ (as in shoe) o Voiced: /v/ (as in van), /z/ (as in zoo), /ʒ/ (as in measure) c) Affricates: Affricates are a combination of a plosive and a fricative. The sound begins as a plosive (with a complete blockage of airflow) and then releases into a fricative.  Articulation: The airflow is initially stopped completely, as in a plosive, but instead of being released suddenly, it is released through a narrow passage, creating friction like a fricative.  Examples: o Voiceless: /tʃ/ (as in church) o Voiced: /dʒ/ (as in judge) d) Approximants: Approximants are produced when the articulators come close to each other, but not close enough to create turbulent airflow, making them more vowel-like.  Articulation: The articulators approach each other, but the constriction is not tight enough to cause friction.  Examples: o /w/ (as in we), /j/ (as in yes), /r/ (as in red)  Subtypes of Approximants:  Glides: These are sounds like /w/ and /j/, which involve smooth, continuous movement of the articulators. 53 | P a g e  Liquids: Sounds like /l/ and /r/. These involve a relatively open vocal tract with some obstruction: o Laterals: In /l/, the airflow escapes around the sides of the tongue. o Rhotics: In /r/, the tongue is in a variety of positions, depending on the language, but the sound does not have complete closure. e) Flaps and retroflex: flaps are produced by a brief contact between the articulators. They are similar to plosives but much quicker. Retroflex sound is formed by curling the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge.  Articulation: A single, rapid movement of the articulator to make brief contact with another part of the vocal tract.  Examples: o Flap: /ɾ/ (as in the American English pronunciation of better, where the /t/ sounds like a rapid /d/) o Retroflex: (as in the American English pronunciation of water, where the last sound, /ɻ/, sound is produced by curling the tip of the tongue back flexibly) 54 | P a g e Summary of Manners of Articulation: Example Manner Description Sounds Plosive Complete blockage of airflow /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, (Stop) followed by release /d/, /g/ Narrow constriction causing /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /v/, Fricative turbulent airflow /z/, /ʒ/ Affricate A plosive followed by a fricative /tʃ/, /dʒ/ Articulators approach but do not Approximant /w/, /j/, /r/, /l/ create significant turbulence /ɾ/ (as in Flap A brief contact between articulators better) curling the tip of the tongue back Retroflex behind the alveolar ridge. /ɻ/ 55 | P a g e 4. Oral vs. Nasal sounds Oral and nasal sounds are types of speech sounds categorized based on the airflow path during their production. Acoustic Differences:  Oral Sounds: Typically have a sharper, clearer sound due to the resonance being focused in the mouth.  Nasal Sounds: Have a muffled, more resonant quality because the sound waves are shaped by both the oral and nasal cavities. a) Oral Sounds: Oral sounds occur when the airflow is directed solely through the mouth. The velum (soft palate) is raised, blocking off the nasal cavity, so air cannot escape through the nose. Key Features:  Velum Position: Raised, sealing off the nasal passage.  Airflow Path: Air escapes only through the mouth.  Articulatory Process: The sound is shaped by various articulators like the tongue, lips, and teeth.  Examples in English: Most consonants and vowels are oral sounds. For example: o Consonants: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /s/, /z/, etc. o Vowels: /i/, /e/, /u/, etc. Types of Oral Sounds:  Plosives (stops): Air is completely stopped and then released (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/). 56 | P a g e  Fricatives: Air is forced through a narrow space, creating friction (e.g., /s/, /z/).  Approximants: There is a close approximation of articulators but without friction (e.g., /l/, /r/, /w/). b) Nasal Sounds: Nasal sounds occur when the airflow passes through the nasal cavity. The velum is lowered, allowing air to escape through the nose while the mouth may be closed or partially closed. Key Features:  Velum Position: Lowered, allowing the nasal cavity to be open.  Airflow Path: Air escapes through the nose.  Articulatory Process: The sound is shaped by the nasal cavity in addition to articulators like the tongue and lips.  Examples in English: The most common nasal consonants in English are: o /m/ (as in mat), o /n/ (as in net), o /ŋ/ (as in sing). Types of Nasal Sounds:  Nasal Stops: Airflow is blocked in the mouth but allowed through the nose, producing a nasal sound. For example, in /m/ and /n/, the lips and tongue block airflow, respectively, but air still passes through the nose. 57 | P a g e Figure 10. Nasal sounds Figure 11. Oral sounds Detailed Comparison: Aspect Oral Sounds Nasal Sounds Lowered, allowing air to Velum Raised, blocking pass through the nasal Position the nasal cavity cavity Directed only Airflow Directed through the nose through the mouth Mainly the tongue, Similar to oral sounds but Articulators lips, and palate with nasal resonance added Occurs in the oral Occurs in both the oral and Resonance cavity nasal cavities /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, Examples /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ vowels like /a/, /e/, 58 | P a g e  Aspect Oral Sounds Nasal Sounds /i/ Sound Clear and non- Has a distinctive nasal Quality nasal quality Sonorants vs. obstruents Sonorants and obstruents are two broad categories of consonant sounds, differentiated by how the airflow behaves during their production and how much turbulence is involved. Let‘s explore the difference between these two types: 1. Sonorants: Sonorants are sounds produced with relatively free airflow, resulting in little to no turbulence in the vocal tract. These sounds are typically more "open" and resonate more than obstruents. In sonorants, the vocal cords usually vibrate (voiced), and the sound is more like a vowel in terms of smoothness. Characteristics:  Airflow: Free-flowing, no significant obstruction.  Vocal Cord Vibration: Usually voiced (the vocal cords vibrate).  Resonance: High resonance due to the open passage of air.  Examples: o Nasals: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ 59 | P a g e o Approximants: /w/, /j/, /r/, /l/ o Lateral Approximants: /l/ Types of Sonorants:  Nasals: The velum is lowered, and air passes through the nasal cavity (e.g., /m/ in man).  Approximants: Articulators come close together, but not close enough to cause friction (e.g., /w/ in we).  Liquids (a subtype of approximants): Include laterals (like /l/) and rhotics (like /r/). 2. Obstruents: Obstruents are consonant sounds produced with significant obstruction of the airflow, which creates turbulence or a noise- like quality. These sounds can either fully block the airflow or restrict it so much that friction occurs. Obstruents can be either voiced or voiceless. Characteristics:  Airflow: Obstructed either fully or partially.  Vocal Cord Vibration: Can be either voiced or voiceless.  Resonance: Lower resonance due to more obstructed airflow.  Examples: o Plosives: /p/, /t/, /k/ (voiceless), /b/, /d/, /g/ (voiced) o Fricatives: /f/, /s/, /ʃ/ (voiceless), /v/, /z/, /ʒ/ (voiced) o Affricates: /tʃ/ (voiceless), /dʒ/ (voiced) 60 | P a g e  Types of Obstruents:  Plosives (Stops): Complete blockage of airflow, followed by a release (e.g., /p/ in pat).  Fricatives: Air is forced through a narrow opening, creating friction (e.g., /s/ in sun).  Affricates: A combination of a stop and a fricative, where the airflow is first stopped and then released through a narrow passage (e.g., /tʃ/ in church). Comparison Table: Aspect Sonorants Obstruents Free flowing, no Obstructed, causing Airflow significant obstruction turbulence or noise Vocal Cord Typically voiced (vocal Can be voiced or Vibration cords vibrate) voiceless Resonance High (similar to vowels) Low resonance Smooth, resonant, Noisy, often sharp or Sound Quality vowel-like harsh Nasals: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ Plosives: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/ Examples Approximants: /w/, /j/ Fricatives: /s/, /z/ Laterals: /l/ Affricates: /tʃ/, /dʒ/ 61 | P a g e Description of English Consonants The consonant sounds /b/ and /p/ When you say /b/ or /p/ lips are closed to stop the air. Then, the open lip moves to release the air. However, in the sound /b/ there is voice from the throat. In P, there is no sound. Figure 12. Description of /b/ and /p/ 62 | P a g e The consonant sounds /t/ and /d/ To say the sounds /t/ and /d/, the tongue touches the tooth ridge to stop the air. Then the tongue moves away from the tooth ridge to release the air. Figure 13. Description of /t/ and /d/ The consonant sounds /k/ and /g/ To say the sounds /k/ and /g/, the back of the tongue touches the top of the mouth to stop the air. Then, the back of the tongue moves away from the top of the mouth to release the air. 63 | P a g e Figure 14. Description of /k/ and /g/ The consonant sounds /m/ To say the sound /m/, the lips stop the air. So, it passes through the nose. Figure 15. Description of /m/ 64 | P a g e The consonant sounds /n/ To say the sound /n/, the tongue touches the teeth ridge to stop the air. So, it passes through the nose. Figure 16. Description of /n/ The consonant sounds /ŋ/ To say the sound / ŋ /, the back of the tongue touches the velum to stop the air. So, it passes through the nose. Figure 17. Description of / ŋ / Consonant sounds /s/ and /z/ To say the sounds /s/ and /z/, the tongue is near to the alveolar ridge and the air is pushed the narrow gap. With /s/, there is no voice from the throat. In the sound /z/, there is voice from the throat. 65 | P a g e Figure 18. Description of /s/ and /z/ The consonant sounds /θ/ and /ð/ To say the sound /θ/ and /ð/, the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. So, the air is pushed through the gap. Figure 19. Description of /θ/ and /ð/ 66 | P a g e The consonant sounds /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ To say the sound /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, the end of the tongue curved back behind the tooth ridge. The air is pushed through the gap. Figure 20. Description of /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ The consonant sounds /f/ and /v/ To say the sounds /f/ and /v/, the top teeth touch the bottom lip. The air is pushed through the gap. 67 | P a g e Figure 21. Description of /f/ and /v/ The consonant sound /h/ To say the sound /h/, the back of the tongue moves to make a small gap at the back of the mouth to permit the air coming from the glottis to move through. Figure 22. Description of /h/ The consonant sounds /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ To say the sound /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, the tongue touches the tooth ridge to stop the air. Then it moves behind the tooth ridge to release the air. 68 | P a g e Figure 23. Description of /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ The consonant sound /l/ To say the sound /l/, the end of the tongue touches the tooth ridge. The air passes across the sides of the tongue. Figure 24. Description of /l/ 69 | P a g e The consonant sound /r/ To say the sound /r/, the end of the tongue curved back. Then the tongue moved to a relaxed position and the jaws moved down. Figure 24. Description of /r/ The consonant sound /j/ To say the sound /j/, the jaw moves down and the tongue moves down to open a small gap at the top of the mouth. /j/ is a voiced palatal glide. Figure 25. Description of /j/ 70 | P a g e The consonant sound /w/ To say the sound /w/, the lips move around. Then they are relaxed. /w/ voiced bi-labial (or labio-alveolar) glide. Figure 26. Description of /w/ Problems of Pronouncing English Consonants To help Arabic English Speakers get near native proficiency in English, there is a need to first understand the exact challenges for Arabic speakers learning English. The differences in sound systems of English and Arabic can be used to fully understand the likely errors made by language learners during learning English. Common Pronunciation Problems for Arabic Speakers of English Now we will list some of the common pronunciation problems faced by Arabic Speakers of English consonants: 71 | P a g e 1. Consonants, as compared to vowels, are core to the word meaning in Arabic. While speaking English, Arabic speakers of English try to unnecessarily emphasize consonants and add extra stress to the syllables. 2. Arabic speakers of English have difficulty in pronouncing Silent Letters. Arabic spelling is pretty much phonetic—letters stand in for their sounds. Arab ESL students will accidentally try to use the same pronunciation rules when speaking English. foreign becomes for-i-gen sign becomes si-gen 3. Arabic speakers learning English find it difficult to make a distinction between voiced and voiceless sounds. Hence, there is confusion in case of voiced and voiceless plosives. For example, in words like /pɪn/ and /bɪn/. Problem /p/ vs. /b/ One of the most common problems for Arab speakers is differentiating between the sound /p/ and /b/, which are voiced and voiceless sounds. Indeed, they can pronounce /b/ successfully since it exists in Arabic, but the aspirated /p/ does not exist in Arabic. In English, pronouncing the sound /b/ instead of /p/ changes the meaning such as the difference between /bæt/ and /pæt/. /b/ sound is a voiced manner and has Bilabial stop and produced by lips. Even though /P/ sound is a voiceless and a Bilabial. Arab learners have difficulties pronouncing /p/ correctly because they are not aware of the way how to produce it. /p/ is a voiceless and produced by 72 | P a g e  lips and speaker should push the air stronger outside the mouth). Example, beat has another meaning from peat. Learners should be more aware of the difference in meaning first and then try to pronounce them together and compare. The same thing happens for voiced and voiceless fricatives /f/ and /v/. For example, in words like /fan/ and /van/ in English. ―Arabic doesn‘t have a contrastive /v/ sound, although the sound does occur as a positional variant of /f/ before voiced stops and affricatives‖. /f/ sound is a voiceless manner and has Labiodental place. Even though /v/ sound has a labiodental, Arab learners have difficulties pronouncing /v/ correctly because they are not aware of the way how to produce it. /v/ is a voiced produced between lips and teeth, and speaker should vibrate the sound between the lips and the teeth. Example, fan has another meaning from van. Students should be more aware of the difference in meaning first and then try to pronounce them together and compare. Arab speakers can pronounce /f/ easily because it is part of Arabic language. Even though they know that the two sounds are different, they still find difficulties pronouncing the /v/ sound. 4. Arabic English speakers are used to speak words that only begin with consonants. When they come across English words beginning with vowels, they add glottal stops before them. This results in the production of somewhat unnatural words in Arabic English. 73 | P a g e 5. Arabic learners of ESL articulate the /h/ phoneme in English words with greater aspiration. Consequently, they pronounce this phoneme in a quite harsh way. 6. Arabic students of English language try to approximate the velar nasal sound /ŋ/ in English words by articulating either a /n/ or by breaking it as /ng/. 7. Arabic speaking learners of English language find it difficult to pronounce Consonant Clusters. This is especially true for those CCs occurring in the word initial position, which is quite common in English. While speaking such words, Arabic learners break the Consonant Cluster by adding epenthetic short vowels in between the consonants, which leads to unnecessary pauses in between the words. This also interferes with the natural intonation of the language. Another area that poses challenge for learners of English with Arabic background is Consonant Cluster reduction or simplification. CC is a frequent phenomenon in English free flow speech. While speaking English, Arabic learners are reluctant to drop consonants, leading to clear articulation of all the consonants in the Consonant Cluster. 8. Arabic learners of English find it difficult to differentiate between /dʒ/ and /g/. This is a common problem with many Arab learners from Egypt and Arabia, although research does not say much about it. It is noticed that /dʒ/ and /g/ do not exist in standard 74 | P a g e  Arabic as consonants. The /dʒ/ sound in Arabic is a cluster of /d/ sound and /ʒ/ and never pronounced together as one diphthong sound as in English. However, the /g/ sound occurs in some dialects. In these dialects the sounds /g/ and /ʒ/ are allophones to the Arabic one consonant letter (‫ )ج‬equivalent to the English sound /ʒ/. Many learners from these areas often mispronounce the /dʒ/ sound as /g/ which is the case here with speaker B pronouncing the word ‗just‘ as /gʌst/. This difficulty is subject to fossilization. If a learner does not recognize this from the early stages, he will find difficulty to avoid it later. Many learners also pronounce the letter ‗g‘ as /g/ in words like ‗agent‘ and ‗technology‘. Confusion between /g/ and /dʒ/ might stem from L1 interference seeing them as interchangeable sounds and letters. They also confuse pronouncing between ‗g‘, /dʒi:/ and ‗j‘, /dʒei/ letters. They strangely do not mispronounce the phoneme /ʒ/ as /g/ in ―pleasure‖ while reading it, but they might misspell it as such depending on the sound they hear. This is probably because the word ―pleasure‖ is a very common word for them. In other situations, they might mispronounce the /ʒ/ sound of the letter ‗s‘ with either /s/ or /z/ sounds. This difficulty of confusing the pronunciation of /g/ and /ʒ/ is very recurrent and common to Arab learners. 9. Problem /Ɵ/ and /ð /. Egypt th + the Both /Ɵ/ and /ð / are dental fricative and; /ð / is voiced and /Ɵ/ is voiceless manner. ―Speakers 75 | P a g e  of some dialects in Arabic may substitute /t/ and /d/ for /Ɵ/ and /ð / respectively, while speakers of other dialects may substitute /s/ and /z/‖. Egyptian speakers have special needs because their dialect is different from other Arabic dialects. In Egypt, people usually replace the sound /Ɵ/ and /ð / with the sound /z/ even though both sounds are part of Arabic. This case related to the Egyptian culture and their accent has old roots. Egypt has more than 98% Muslims in its population, which means they are reading the holy book (Quran). Reading Quran requires an accurate pronunciation, including the sounds /Ɵ/ and /ð /. Nevertheless, for reasons that are not clear, Egyptian still struggle with pronouncing it correctly because of the Egyptian culture. This indicates how this problem is serious for them and hard it is to solve. For Example: Wrong pronunciation: Sing- correct: Thing Wrong pronunciation: zair correct their. 10. Arabic speakers of English find problems with /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ ch + j. In Arabic there are no /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ sounds, /tʃ/ is voiceless and /dʒ/ is voiced; both have affricate manner and take the palatal place of articulation. The problem is that Arabic does not have affricate sound. This problem carries over into reading English. They might encounter different problems with different sound such as /k/ when it is written in form of Ch as in Christin. Students at the beginning might overgeneralize the use of ch as it pronounced /tʃ/. For example, if Arab speakers read the word 76 | P a g e  Characters, the first sound should take /k/. However, Because Arabic has a good sound –to- symbol correspondence, beginning learners might not identify the correct way of saying it. 11.The articulation of post-vocalic, rhotic consonant /r/ of English is another challenging area for Arabic learners of English. Arabic learners tend to over-pronounce it. The /r/ Sound Generally, the /r/ is classified as an approximant, palato-alveolar sound. However, it is pronounced differently in many accents and dialects. In RP, the /r/ is a post alveolar approximant where the tip of the tongue comes close to the alveolar ridge without touching it, making a quick smooth frictionless glide sound. It is also described as a frictionless continuant. It is clear that both speakers pronounce the /r/ with a rolled sound by tapping the tongue quickly at the alveolar ridge. In Arabic the /r/ is voiced and strongly pronounced. There is no situation in Arabic where the /r/ is not pronounced. Consequently, the speakers do pronounce the /r/ even in final positions in the words ‘Manchester‘ and ‗pleasure‘. Problem /r/ ―The English /r/ maybe pronounced as a trill‖. There are number of ways to produce /r/, and Arab speakers usually have difficulties pronouncing the dark /r/. Dark /r/ is a voiced palatal liquid. This sound for Arab speakers is one of the hardest sounds to adjust by the mouth to. In English, there are two ways to pronounce the r. One of them is used by English native 77 | P a g e speakers which is voiced palatal liquid like the /r/ in ‗Peter‘. The second way is voiced alveolar liquid like ‗rain‘. 78 | P a g e Vowel Description A vowel is a type of sound in spoken languages that is produced without any significant constriction or blockage of airflow in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two major classes of sounds in languages, the other being consonants. In terms of both phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study of sound patterns in languages), vowels play a central role in the structure of syllables and words. Key Characteristics (Criteria) of Vowels: o Tongue Position: The tongue plays a crucial role in shaping vowel sounds. The position of the tongue can vary along two dimensions:  Height: How high or low the tongue is in the mouth, ranging from high (close to the roof of the mouth) to low (far from the roof of the mouth).  Backness: Whether the tongue is towards the front or the back of the mouth. This can be described as front, central, or back. o Lip Rounding: Another factor that affects vowel quality is whether the lips are rounded or unrounded (spread). Some vowels, like [u] (as in "boot"), are produced with rounded lips, while others, like [i] (as in "beat"), are produced with unrounded lips. 79 | P a g e  o Length: The length of vowels refers to the amount of time a vowel sound is held or pronounced. o Types of Vowels:  Monophthongs: A monophthong is a simple vowel sound with a single, unchanging sound quality. It can be described as a "pure" vowel. Examples include the vowel sounds in "cat" [æ], "sit" [ɪ], and "dog" [ɔ].  Diphthongs: A diphthong is a vowel sound that involves a glide from one vowel quality to another within the same syllable. The sound starts with one vowel and transitions smoothly to another. Examples include the vowel sounds in "boy" [ɔɪ], "my" [aɪ], and "go" [oʊ].  Triphthongs: A triphthong is a complex vowel sound that involves a glide through three different vowel qualities. It‘s essentially a diphthong with an additional vowel sound. An example is the vowel sound in "fire" in some accents, where it might be pronounced as [aɪə]. Each of the previous features is described in the following section: 1. Height of the tongue o High vowels, also known as close vowels, are pronounced with the tongue positioned high in the mouth, close to the roof of the mouth. In English, the primary high vowels are:  /i:/ as in ―beat‖ 80 | P a g e   /ɪ/ as in ―bit‖  /u:/ as in ―boot‖  /ʊ/ as in "book" o Low vowels, also known as open vowels, are pronounced with the tongue positioned low in the mouth, creating a larger space in the oral cavity. In English, the primary low vowels are:  /æ/ as in ―cat‖  /a:/ as in ―father‖  /ɒ/ as in ―hot‖ o Mid vowels, also known as mid-close or mid-open vowels, are pronounced with the tongue positioned midway between high and low in the mouth. In English, the primary mid vowels include:  /e/ as in ―bed‖  /ə/ as in ―about‖  /ʌ/ as in ―cup‖  /əʊ/ as in ―goat‖  /ɜː/ as in nurse  /ɔ:/ as in thought 2. Backness of the tongue o Back vowels, Back vowels are pronounced with the tongue positioned towards the back of the mouth. In English, the primary back vowels include: 81 | P a g e   /ɒ/ as in hot  /ʊ/ as in foot  /ɑː/ as in father  /ɔ:/as in thought  /əʊ/ as in goat  /u:/as in goose o Front vowels are pronounced with the highest part of the tongue pushed forward in the mouth. In English, the primary front vowels include:  /I/ as in kit  /e/ as in dress  /i:/as in fleece  /ei/as in face  /æ/ as in bat o Central vowels are pronounced with the tongue positioned in the middle of the mouth. In American English, the primary central vowels are:  /ə/ as in about  /ɜː/ as in nurse  /ʌ/ as in strut 3. Lip rounding Vowels can be described using various attributes including roundedness and lip position. Here‘s how vowels are generally 82 | P a g e categorized with respect to rounding, neutral, and extended lip positions: o Rounded Vowels: These are vowels produced with the lips rounded and often protruded. The rounding can vary in degree, but it generally makes the vowel sound fuller and more closed. Examples include:  [u] as in "food"  [əʊ] as in "goat" Rounded vowels can be either high or low, and the amount of rounding affects the quality of the vowel. o Neutral Vowels: These are vowels where the lips are neither rounded nor significantly spread. The neutral position is often relaxed and can sometimes be described as the lips being in a central or neutral position. Examples include:  [ə] as in the first syllable of "about"  [ʌ] as in "cup" Neutral vowels are often central vowels, where the tongue is in a more central position within the mouth. o Extended (or Spread) Vowels: For these vowels, the lips are spread or pulled back, which can give the vowel a more tense or extended quality. This lip position can make the vowel sound brighter or sharper. Examples include: 83 | P a g e   [i] as in "beet"  [e] as in "bet" Extended vowels are usually high or mid-high vowels, where the tongue is positioned towards the roof of the mouth and the lips are spread. 4. Length Vowel length can be an important feature in many languages, where it can even change the meaning of a word. There are two primary distinctions in vowel length: o Short Vowels Short vowels are pronounced with less duration. They are typically quicker and do not involve a prolonged sound. In English, short vowels are found in words like:  /ɪ/ in "sit"  /ʊ/ in "foot"  /æ/ in "cat"  /e/ in "bed"  /ʌ/ in "cup" o Long Vowels Long vowels are held or pronounced for a longer duration than short vowels. In some languages, the distinction between a long and short vowel can completely change the meaning of a word. In 84 | P a g e English, long vowels typically correspond to what are often called "tense vowels," and they occur in words like:  /iː/ in "seat"  /uː/ in "food"  /ɑː/ in "car"  /ɔː/ in "law"  /eɪ/ in "make" 5. Types of vowels o Monophthongs Most of the vowels we have considered so far have been monophthongs, in which the quality of the vowel stays fairly consistent from the beginning of its production to the end. A vowel which remains constant and does not glide is called a pure vowel. However, in English, there are several vowels which are not pure. There are vowels which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another. These vowels are called diphthongs or triphthongs. Diphthongs change in quality during their production, and are typically transcribed with one starting point, and a quite different end point. 85 | P a g e o Diphthongs RP has a large number of diphthongs. In terms of length, diphthongs are similar to the long vowels described above. Perhaps the most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and stronger than the second part; for example, most of the diphthong /aI/ (as in the words 'eye', 'I') consists of the /a/ vowel, and only in about the last quarter of the diphthong does the glide to /I/ become noticeable. As the glide to /I/ happens, the loudness of the sound decreases. As a result, the /I/ part is shorter and quieter. Foreign learners should, therefore, always remember that the last part of English diphthongs must not be made too strongly. The total number of diphthongs is eight (though υə is increasingly rare). The easiest way to remember them is in terms of three groups divided as in the following diagram: 86 | P a g e The centering diphthongs glide towards the /ə/ (schwa) vowel, as the symbols indicate. Iə (example words: 'beard', 'weird', 'fierce') The starting point is a little closer than /I/ in 'bit', 'bin', eə (example words: 'aired', 'cairn', 'scarce') This diphthong begins with a vowel sound that is more open than the /e/ of 'get', 'men'. υə (example words: 'moored', 'tour', 'lure') For speakers who have this diphthong, this has a starting point similar to /υ/ in 'put', 'pull'. Many speakers pronounce /ɔ:/ instead. The closing diphthongs have the characteristic that they all end with a glide towards a closer vowel. Because the second part of the diphthong is weak, they often do not reach a position that could be called close. The important thing is that a glide from a relatively more open towards a relatively closer vowel is produced. Three of the diphthongs glide towards /I/, as described below: eI (example words: 'paid', 'pain', 'face') The starting point is the same as the /e/ of 'get', 'men', aI (example words: 'tide', 'time', 'nice') This diphthong begins with an open vowel which is between front and back; it is quite similar to the /ʌ/ of the words 'cut', 'bun', 87 | P a g e ɔI (example words: 'void', 'loin', 'voice') The first part of this diphthong is slightly more open than /ɔ:/ in 'ought', 'born'. Two diphthongs glide towards /υ/, so that as the tongue moves closer to the roof of the mouth there is at the same time a rounding movement of the lips. This movement is not a large one, again because the second part of the diphthong is weak. əυ (example words: 'load', 'home', 'most') The vowel position for the beginning of this is the same as for the "schwa" vowel /ə/, as found in the first syllable of the word 'about'. The lips may be slightly rounded in anticipation of the glide towards /υ/, for which there is quite noticeable lip-rounding. aυ (example words: 'loud', 'gown', 'house') This diphthong begins with a vowel similar to /aI/. Since this is an open vowel, a glide to /υ/ would necessitate a large movement, and the tongue often does not reach the /υ/ position. There is only slight lip-rounding. o Triphthongs The most complex English sounds of the vowel type are the triphthongs. They can be rather difficult to pronounce, and very difficult to recognize. A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption. For example, a careful pronunciation of the word 'hour' begins with a vowel quality similar to a:, goes on to a glide 88 | P a g e towards the back close rounded area (for which we use the symbol υ), then ends with a mid-central vowel (schwa, ə). We use the symbol /aυə/ to represent the pronunciation of 'hour', but this is not always an accurate representation of the pronunciation. The triphthongs can be looked on as being composed of the five closing diphthongs described in the last section, with ə added on the end. Thus we get:  eI + ə = eIə  əυ + ə = əυə  aI + ə = aIə  aυ + ə = aυə  ɔI + ɔ = ɔIə 89 | P a g e Problems of Pronouncing English Vowels In Arabic there are three short vowels /e/ /ʊ/ and /ɪ/ plus a stop sound. They do not have morphemic orthographic transcript and are not pronounced separately. They accompany a consonant and are marked by corresponding signs to be distinguished. For example, the Arabic consonant ‫( د‬d) is pronounced as ‫ د‬/de/, ‫د‬ /dʊ/, ‫ د‬/dɪ/. These three vowels turn into long vowels if they are lengthened: /de:/, /dʊ:/ and /di:/. Vowel lengthening in Arabic is marked by suffixing consonants by / ‫ا‬/ for /e:/, / ‫و‬/for/ʊ:/ and /‫ي‬/ for /i:/. On the other side, English contains 20 vowels: 12 long and short vowels and 8 diphthongs. In Arabic, vowels like /æ/, /ʌ/, and /e/ are all allophones; they do not make any difference neither in meaning nor in morphemic transcription and do not at all impede intelligibility. The schwa /ə/ and the diphthongs do not exist in Arabic pronunciation as individual vowels. /æ/ VERSUS /ʌ/ and /e/ The vowel /æ/ is a short front, open vowel formed by slightly spreading the lips. /æ/ exists in Arabic and always occurs with only one single consonant letter. The speakers‘ performance indicates some confusion between /æ/ and /ʌ/. This is clear with speaker B when, the word /bæd/ is pronounced as /bʌd/ and /ˈkætʃ/ as /ˈkʌtʃ/. This is because in Arabic these sounds are allophones and are interchangeable to the same vowel letter. If, 90 | P a g e for example, we have the Arabic consonant ‫ د‬, it can be pronounced as /de/, /dæ/, and /dʌ / depending on the degree of voice of the following letter without being restricted to any phonological rule, and might differ from area to another depending on each accent, without leading to any word or meaning confusion. THE SCHWA /ə/ The schwa is the most occurring vowel in English, and its role in the English stress system is considerable. It is a central vowel formed by free air flow without lip rounding and occurs in all positions of the syllable: initial, middle or final. The schwa is a reduced vowel in unstressed syllables and appears in weak forms where vowels are pronounced /ə/. Although the schwa vowel does not exist in Arabic, and hence it is strange, the speakers do not find much difficulty pronouncing it. Both speakers pronounced the article ‗a‘ correctly (/ə/). However, in many cases the speakers failed to use the schwa sound in words like have, can, the, at, and can. This failure is not due to the lack of this schwa vowel in L1, but it is confusing and problematic to students because in English it can be represented by many vowel letters and the learners do not know the sound combining rules or the phonotactics whereas Arabic pronunciation is highly consistent by giving one sound to one letter. Hence, in many cases, Arab learners‘ failure to pronounce the schwa is mainly attributed to their unawareness of 91 | P a g e the mechanisms of weak and strong forms of English in connected speech, as will be discussed later. /ɪ/ INSERTION This insertion is very often with Arab learners who face difficulty pronouncing long clusters, mainly because sequence of three or more consonants do not occur in their L1, and consequently speakers tend to break clusters by inserting the vowel sound /ɪ/. For example, speaker B inserts /ɪ/ in /hæpnŋ/, breaking the cluster /pnŋ/into two syllables, /pɪnɪŋg/; and the same is done previously with/mænʃstə/ which is pronounced as /mænʃɪstɪr/. /i:/ INSTEAD OF /eɪ/ in „great’ Although diphthongs do not exist in Arabic as separate vowels, they do not represent a major problem for Arab learners because they occur in a combination of two consonants or more. However, confusion comes from the orthographic transcript of diphthongs, which is not consistent. For example, the vowel letters ‗ea’ can be pronounced as /æ / in ‘head’ /i:/ in ‗leave’, and as /eɪ/ in ‗great’. Bearing that in mind that the speakers are reading a written conversation, this inconsistency can lead to learner confusion like in line 6 when speaker A pronounced the diphthong /eɪ/ as /i:/, /gri:t/, in ‗great’. 92 | P a g e Syllables The syllable is a very important unit. Most people seem to believe that, even if they cannot define what a syllable is, they can count how many syllables there are in a given word or sentence. If they are asked to do this they often tap their finger as they count, which illustrates the syllable's importance in the rhythm of speech. As a matter of fact, if one tries the experiment of asking English speakers to count the syllables in, say, a recorded sentence, there is often a considerable amount of disagreement. The word syllable is derived from the Latin syllaba, which means taken, brought or put together. The reason why we have been able to do so is that most people have an intuitive sense of what a syllable is, and they can probably define a syllable vaguely as the smallest rhythmic unit of spoken language, for example, or a unit that is typically larger than a single sound and smaller than a word. Even without being able to give an exact definition, most people feel they can count syllables and say how many syllables there are in a given word or sequence of words. On the other hand, studies have shown that, when English speakers are asked to count the syllables of a concrete utterance, there is bound to be considerable disagreement among them. It becomes clear, then, that the notion of the syllable is more elusive than is widely 93 | P a g e thought. In this chapter, we shall therefore discuss the syllable in some detail. We learnt in the previous section that consonants and vowels can be described both from a phonetic point of view, i.e. in terms of how they are produced, and from a phonological point of view, i.e. in terms of where they occur. The same is true of syllables. Phonetically, a syllable can be described as having a center, also called peak or nucleus, which is produced with little or no obstruction of air and is therefore usually formed by a vowel (either a monophthong or a diphthong). From the point of view of auditory phonetics, investigating the perception of speech sounds by the listener, the center of a syllable is perceived to be more prominent than the margins, i.e. onset and coda. The prominence of a syllable center (and the prominence of a particular sound in relation to