BI231 Exam Checklists - Winter 2022 PDF

BI231 EXAM CHECKLISTS Midterm: N.B: Usual cut-off for midterm material is from start of course through the chapters on bone and joints. Check syllabus and your instructor to be sure if there are changes. Remember to learn anatomical-physiological terminology (not simply lay terminology). Orientati...

BI231 EXAM CHECKLISTS Midterm: N.B: Usual cut-off for midterm material is from start of course through the chapters on bone and joints. Check syllabus and your instructor to be sure if there are changes. Remember to learn anatomical-physiological terminology (not simply lay terminology). Orientation: anatomy physiology hierarchy levels: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ systems, organism homeostasis: positive feedback negative feedback language of anatomy: anatomical position directional terms body planes: body cavities: dorsal: cranial cavity_______________, and spinal cavity______________ ventral: thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity *diaphragm separates the abdominopelvic from thoracic serous membrane: (in ventral body cavity) two layers parietal (wall) and visceral (organ): heart - pericardium lungs - pleura intestines - peritoneum tissue classification consider: criteria - structure, function, tissue characteristics: contrast with classification (e.g.: matrix avascular etc) Tissue: Four types (C-MEN) C - connective tissue, M - muscle, E - epithelium, N - nervous, connective tissue connective tissue - cartilage bone blood proper types types types loose CT hyaline cartilage compact areolar elastic cartilage spongy adipose fibro cartilage reticular dense CT regular irregular elastic cell type cell type cell type cell type fibroblast chondroblasts osteogenic cells WBC fibrocytes chondrocytes osteoblasts RBC osteocytes platelets osteoclasts Muscle: skeletal cardiac smooth Epithelium: cell shape and cell arrangement simple: squamous cuboidal columnar pseudostratified stratified: squamous  cuboidal columnar transitional membranes and glands: mucous serous cutaneous gland types and cell methods of secretion Nervous: neurons neuroglia Integument: epidermis (5 layers) deep to superficial 1. corneum keratinocytes keratin Vitamin D – natural formation (UV-rays → keratinocyte → vitamin D → Ca++ → bones) melenocytes skin color UV protection → (effects on Vitamin D) 2. lucidum 3. granulosum 4. spinosum 5. basale (stratum germinativum) dermis: papillary - 20% (dermal papillae) reticular - 80% (dense irregular) skin color: melanin µ carotene µ hemoglobin µ albinism appendages of skin: hair (arrector pili) nails glands: sweat (sudoriferous) eccrine - m/c - simple coiled tubular - body temperature regulation apocrine - axillary and anogenital areas - simple branched tubular - Abody odor@ ceruminous mammary oil (sebaceous) connected to hair follicles - simple coiled tubular - activated at puberty - acne thermoregulation BONE: function → support, protection, movement, mineral storage, hemopoiesis classification → long, short, flat, irregular & examples bone tissue types → compact, spongy long bones (parts) diaphysis → hollow shaft medullary cavity → contains yellow marrow endosteum periosteum (2 layers) inner → osteogenic outer → fibrous Sharpey’s fibers epiphysis → contains red marrow in the spaces of trabeculae articular cartilage (hyaline) epiphyseal plate – 4/5 zones and their functions zones: reserved cartilage proliferating cartilage hypertrophic cartilage calcified matrix resorption epiphyseal line – what is it; where did it come from, how differs from plate? compact bone (lamellar bone) Haversian system (osteon) Haversian canal lacuna osteocytes canaliculi Volkmann canal interstitial lamellae circumferential lamellae spongy bone (trabeculae) chemical composition and function organic components - structures functions inorganic components - structures functions bone development: (steps) →intramembranous - direct, embryonic fibers →endochondral - indirect, hyaline cartilage m/c Bone growth zones: reserved cartilage proliferating cartilage hypertrophic cartilage resorption-calcified matrix hormones and other necessary factors growth Hormone thyroid (T3, T4) sex hormones vitamins and minerals homeostatic imbalances osteoporosis osteomalacia (adults), rickets (children) ARTICULATIONS: To secure bones; all have a type of CT; in some they permit movement classified by: material (structure) - CT = fibrous cartilage synovial/fibrous membrane movement (function) - (SAD) synarthroses amphiarthroses diarthroses types structural classifications(3) – know subclassifications and examples: fibrous - *no cavity sutures (syn), syndesmosis (amphi), gomphoses (syn) cartilaginous - *no cavity synchondroses, symphysis (amphi) synovial - * cavity (di) articular cartilage synovial cavity synovial (articular) capsule (fibrous and synovial membrane) synovial fluid associated structures: ligaments menisci bursae tendons tendon sheaths weeping lubrication nonaxial, uniaxial, biaxial, multiaxial Ex: hinge, pivot, ball and socket... movement limited by ligaments, bone fit, m/c muscle tone. Angular Movements: flexion extension circumduction rotation – IR/MR v. ER/LR homeostatic imbalances sprain, strains, dislocation, herniated disc, 7  arthritides – know main presentation S/S – compare and contrast: osteoarthritis rheumatoid arthritis gouty arthritis Post-Midterm Material – Remember: Final is Cumulative! NERVOUS SYSTEM: integration stimulus effector organ Organization: CNS PNS sensory division motor division autonomic somatic nervous system nervous system sympathetic parasympathetic Types of Cells: Neurons: Supporting Cells Schwann cells & satellite cells in PNS neuroglia in CNS astrocyte microglia ependymal oligodendrocytes Neuron Structure: axon, cell body, dendrites, myelin sheath, Schwann cell, neurilemma, nodes of Ranvier, axon terminus 8 Don’t forget about terminology: Ganglion v. nucleus Tracts v. nerves mixed nerve Classification of Neurons: Structural : multipolar bipolar unipolar Functional: sensory (afferent) motor (efferent) association (internuncial, intercalated) Nerve Structure: endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium, fascicles Neurophysiology: two major types of channels →passive/leakage →active/gated three type of gated channels →ligand (chemically) gated →electrically gated →mechanically gated What type of channels produce graded potentials when activated? graded potentials are produced when ligand or mechanically gated ion channels are activated action potentials are produced when electrically gated channels are activated What channels are opened during depolarization and/or repolarization? voltage-gated Na+ channels are opened during the depolarization phase. voltage-gated K+ channels are opened during the repolarization phase. Note: graded potential action potential resting potential -70 mV threshold -50 to -55 mV depolarization -50÷up to +30 repolarization +30 ÷-70 mV hyperpolarization down to -90 to -100 mV absolute refractory period relative refractory period 9 Conduction Velocities: What factors determine the propagation of speed of a nerve impulse →diameter of an axon: larger (faster), smaller (slower) → degree of myelination: absence (slower) or presence (faster) →temperature: warm (faster), cold (slower) →synaptic delay: less synapses (faster) more synapses (slower) Saltatory conduction → myelinated Continuous conduction → unmyelinated neuron Summation – know what it is, its effects and types: →Temporal →Spatial CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Major Adult Brain Regions: cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum Production and flow of CSF choroid plexus Ventricles and CSF circulation pathway: lateral ventricles (septum pellucidum) ÷ interventricular foramen ÷ third ventricle ÷ cerebral aqueduct ÷ fourth ventricle (lateral aperture & median aperture) ÷ subarachnoid space ÷ arachnoid villi ÷ dural sinuses Cerebrum Structure, Functions & Characteristics: 3 functional areas: motor, sensory, association areas Lobes: frontal lobe parietal lobes temporal lobes occipital lobe insula Diencephalon Structure, Functions & Characteristics: thalamus: hypothalamus: epithalamus (pineal body/gland) Brainstem Structures, Functions & Characteristics: midbrain: pons: medulla oblongata: 10 Cerebellum Structure, Functions & Characteristics: Functions: Meninges of the Brain: dura Mater (meningeal and periosteal layers) falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium arachnoid mater pia mater Meninges of Spinal Cord: dura mater (meningeal layer only), arachnoid mater, pia mater Cerebral Spinal Fluid: flow site of production composition function Spinal Cord Characteristics: dura conus medullaris filum terminale cervical & lumbar enlargements cauda equina anterior median fissure posterior median sulcus dorsal horn ventral horn lateral horn ventral root dorsal root dorsal root ganglion Limbic System (encircles diencephalon) → emotional/feeling brain olfactory bulbs, fornix, basal ganglia, amygdaloid nucleus, hippocampus, mammillary bodies 11 Reticular Formation: (found in brain stem → midbrain, pons, medulla) RAS - filter information to cerebral cortex and maintains constant arousal Important vital reflex centers: cardiacvascular cardiac centers vasomotor center (regulate BV diameter) respiratory medullary rhythmicity area (breathing): Blood Brain Barrier astrocytes (glial cells) absent around hypothalamus (samples blood) RAMI of Spinal Nerves spinal nerves divide into branches → primary rami dorsal rami (posterior) – innervates? ventral rami (anterior) – innervates? →recurrent meningeal – innervates? →autonomic rami (white & grey rami communicantes (N.B.: singular = ramus communicans) -involved with sympathetic pathways Spinal Nerve plexi – know which spinal nerves and main peripheral n.n. involved →cervical →brachial →lumbar →sacral Dermatones → cutaneous branches of single spinal nerve – what is clinical utility? White Matter of Spinal Cord – Ascending and Descending Somatic Pathways: descending pathways (motor) – know types, decussation, names ascending pathways (sensory) - know types, decussation, names Sensory Integration 12 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Motor outflow (only) to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (internal viscera) Efferent Pathways of ANS components: 1) preganglionic fiber, 2) autonomic ganglion 3) postganglionic fiber preganglionic neuron - white rami parasympathetic arise from → ________________and end________________ sympathetic arise from → ________________ and end ________________ postganglionic neuron → grey rami - from ganglion to effector (fibers are thinner) parasympathetic arise from → _______________and end________________ sympathetics arise from → ________________ and end ________________ Neurotransmitter Effects somatic - acetylcholine µ ANS - norepinephrine or acetylcholine µ (alpha, beta) ANS divisions → roles/purpose/function sympathetic division → fight or flight system (Es) parasympathetic division → rest and repose (Ds) Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) Division T1-L2 white ramus communicans gray ramus communicans Sympathetic/Paravertebral Chains (trunks) - paravertebral ganglia (bilaterally) cervical - 3 divisions µ preganglionic fibers from T1-T6, (superior ganglion, middle ganglion, inferior ganglion ["stellate ganglion"] thoracolumbar components: pre-vertebral (collateral) ganglion and splanchnic nerves * Preganglionic (sympathetic) fibers reach their effector in three different ways, with one exception (3 Options and an Exception) – Know these: →synapse the same ganglion with postganglionic neuron to organ →ascend or descend the sympathetic chain → synapse in a different ganglion → to organ →pass through the sympathetic chain without synapsing → form a splanchnic nerve → prevertebral ganglion → synapse there with a postganglionic fiber → to organ *→exception: through the paravertebral ganglia without synapsing → form a splanchnic nerve → through prevertebral ganglia without synapsing → to the adrenal medulla (no synapse) 13 Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) Division Cranial Outflow (III, VII, IX, X) - 5 components: 4 pairs of ganglia → ciliary ganglia, sphenopalatine ganglia, submandibular ganglia, otic ganglia, and the vagus nerve CN X (90% of all parasympathetics) Sacral Outflow (S2-4) Neurotransmitters and Receptors Neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (Ach) "cholinergic fibers", norepinephrine (NE) "adrenergic fibers" Receptors: cholinergic receptors → 2 types: nicotinic R/C, muscarinic R/C adrenergic R/C → 2 types: alpha R/C, beta R/C 14 SPECIAL SENSATION Taste (gustation) Taste buds and the Sense of Taste taste buds- sensory R/C organ for taste → (oval bodies consisting of 3 types of cells papillae on tongue papillae: 3 major types: circumvallate, fungiform, filiform Taste sensation 4-5 basic qualities → or primary tastes sweet (organic substances, sugar and amino acids) sour (acids, and H+ ions) salty (inorganic salt, and metal ions) bitter (alkaloids, nicotine, and caffeine) umami – (certain amino acids, e.g.: glutamate) Activation of taste R/C → chemical substance must dissolve in saliva → into taste pores → stimulates gustatory hairs → increase in R/C depolarizing potential causing action potential by summation. Gustatory P/W: facial n. (VII) anterior 2/3 and glossopharyngeal n. (IX) posterior 1/3 of the tongue vagus (X) epiglottis and pharynx → afferent impulse to medulla (solitary nucleus) → thalamus → primary gustatory area of parietal lobe and insula Other contributors to taste perception - thermoreceptors (hot & cold), mechanoreceptors (texture), nociceptors (pain) , temperature, and taste is > 80% smell Olfactory Epithelium and Sense of Smell Location/Structure of olfactory R/Cs Olfactory epithelium: olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells: Activation of olfactory R/C – chemical must be in gaseous state "volatile" Olfactory P/W - odor is picked up by hair cells of olfactory R/C cell (pass through cribriform plate as olfactory n.) synapse with dendrites of mitral cells in the olfactory bulb → (mitral axons form olfactory tracts) → olfactory cortex (and limbic system) Olfactory Adaptation: Granule cells: function? 15 Eye and Vision Eyebrows, eyelids µ (palpebrae), eyelashes Conjunctiva → (palpebral conjunctiva, bulbar conjunctiva, conjunctival sacs Lacrimal apparatus → (lacrimal glands, lacrimal canal, lacrimal sac, to nasolacrimal duct) tears (watery solution containing salts, mucus, antibodies and lysozymes) Structure of the Eye: tunica fibrous tunic → two portions: sclera cornea sclera-cornea junction (canal of Schlemm) vascular tunic (uvea) choroid ciliary body: ciliary processes and ciliary m.m. + ciliary zonule iris sensory or nervous tunic → "the retina" photoreceptors rods cones optic disc macula lutea and fovea centralis Internal Chambers Lens Eyeball is divided into two smaller segments Anterior segment (two chambers) anterior chamber and posterior chambers (aqueous humor) Posterior segment - vitreous humor maintains intraocular pressure keeps retina tight against choroid layer for clear image transmits light and refracts lioght 16 Physiology of Vision Focusing light on the retina to form an image - four basic processes: refraction accommodation* constriction of pupil* convergence* *involved in near vision stimulation and photoreceptors excitation of rods excitation of cones visual pathway- from rods to cones → bipolar neurons → ganglion cells ( initiates nerve impulses; leaves eyeball as optic nerve (II) → optic chiasm (medial fibers from each eye decussate and join lateral fibers from opposite eye) 6 lateral fibers don’t cross → form optic tracts (bilaterally) travel to thalamus (lateral geniculate nucleus) fibers synapse and pass to occipital lobe via optic radiation. 17 The Ear: Hearing and Balance structure of the ear the outer ear pinna external auditory canal – skin-lined tympanic membrane middle ear: pharyngotympanic or Eustachian) tube – pressure EQ auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) Inner ear (labyrinth) bony or osseous labyrinth - 3 divisions vestibule: (maculae: utricle and saccule) cochlea: ((modiolus)cochlear duct) scala media – contains "spiral organ of Corti" scala vestibuli and scala tympani semicircular canals: (anterior, posterior, and lateral) ampulla, "crista ampularis" *perilymph membranous labyrinth → *endolymph physiology of hearing deafness - 2 types - sensineural and conduction sensory deficits sensineural/nerve deafness conduction deafness physiology of equilibrium static/linear equilibrium: utricle and saccule dynamic/rotary equilibrium ; crista ampularis screening tests for hearing and balance disorders, e.g. Rhinne, Weber, Romberg, etc) 18