2HY 2024 Heroes & Villains - Henry VIII Booklet PDF

Name/Tutor:........................... 2HY 2024 Heroes & Villains Because, in History, one man’s hero is another man’s villain… 1|2HY Henry VIII The Cast of Heroes and/or Villains: Part I: 1. Xerxes – and Ancient Persia 2. Genghis Khan – and the Mongols 3. Boudicca – and the Celtic revolt Half-Yearly Examination Part II: 1. Henry VIII – Tudor England 2. Stalin – and Communist Russia Annual Examination Part III: 1. Richard the Lionheart Inquiry Questions 1. Who was our historical figure and what did they do? (consider politics, religion, the military, social reforms) 2. How does understanding their context (historical period) help to understand their actions? (consider their childhood and family, society and its norms) 3. What does the available source material tell us about our historical figure? 4. How can we explain the different opinions held about our historical figure? 2|2HY Henry VIII First Impressions Source A: The Great Seal of Henry VIII (c.1530). The seal was used on a letter from Henry to Edward Seymour (a knight), in which Henry granted Edward an annual payment of 50 marks. Obverse Reverse Source B: Valor Ecclesiasticus, 1535. This manuscript (a book written by hand) was commissioned by Henry to provide an estimate of how much wealth the Church had in England and Wales (a valuation). It was written in Latin and has illuminated portraits (images that are painted by hand using precious metals) depicting Henry VIII. 3|2HY Henry VIII Source C: The Venetian ambassador to England described his first meeting with Henry in 1515. After dinner, we were taken to the King [Henry VIII], who embraced us, without ceremony, and conversed for a very long while very familiarly, on various topics, in good Latin and in French, which he speaks very well indeed, and he then dismissed us, and we were brought back here to London…. His Majesty is the handsomest potentate [ruler] I ever set eyes on; above the usual height, with an extremely fine calf to his leg, his complexion very fair and bright, with auburn hair combed straight and short, in the French fashion, his throat being rather long and thick. He was born on the 28th of June, 1491, so he will enter his twenty-fifth year the month after next. He speaks French, English, and Latin, and a little Italian, plays well on the lute and harpsichord, sings from book at sight, draws the bow with greater strength than any man in England, and jousts marvellously. Believe me, he is in every respect a most accomplished Prince; and I, who have now seen all the sovereigns in Christendom, and last of all these two of France and England in such great state, might well rest content. Source D: Suit of Armour made for Henry to wear in his later years (1540s). Tower of London. The dimensions are 6-foot 1-inch tall, 53in (135cm) chest, 52in (132cm) waist. As a comparison, in his 20s, Henry had a chest of 39in (99cm), and 32in (81cm) waist. 4|2HY Henry VIII What can we learn about Henry VIII from the previous sources? (Refer to specific aspects of the sources). ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Background on The Tudors The Tudor family came to the English throne in 1485 at the conclusion of the War of Roses (1455-1485), which was a drawn out dispute between two family lines over the right to wear the crown. Much blood and money was spilt in these years, as the House of York and the House of Lancaster fought each other throughout England and Wales. Henry Tudor was not a hereditary monarch; he had seized the throne by defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, and then married Elizabeth of York. By doing so, Henry had united the two warring families. This meant that the Tudor dynasty was new. Peace was restored and a sense of stability returned to English politics. The war had bitterly divided the kingdom and had also cost a lot of money in resources and taxes. In response, the new king Henry VII was frugal and sought to establish a more efficient system of taxing his subjects. Over time, however, this led to abuses of power and, while the royal treasury regained its wealth, many commoners did not see benefits from their taxes. Henry VII had two sons, and his eldest son Arthur was to be his heir. However, Arthur died suddenly in 1502. This created a small dilemma because Arthur had married Catherine of Aragon five months earlier in 1501. Catherine was the daughter of Isabella I and Ferdinand II of Aragon (who commissioned Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage across the Atlantic). Henry VII had sought to create a treaty with these powerful Spanish rulers via the marriage of their daughter to his eldest son. However, after Arthur’s death it was agreed that Catherine would marry Henry’s second son, Henry VIII, who was five years younger than her. The couple eventually married in 1509 after Henry VII had died. Therefore, England had a new, young, athletic and intelligent king in Henry VIII. And he had a Spanish bride. The kingdom was in the mood for a party, and Henry VIII instinctively made the decision to throw lavish demonstrations of the crown’s wealth. Although the Tudor dynasty had begun thirty years earlier, Henry VIII’s reign ushered in a new age. It was an age when the English identity established itself as independent from Europe in matters of politics, 5|2HY Henry VIII religion, military, and culture. However, although Henry’s reign was significant on an international scale via warfare, economic trade, diplomacy, academic endeavour, and religious belief, our study will mainly focus on how Henry was viewed within England. Henry is famous for having six wives. This rhyme helps us to remember their order: ‘divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived’. Although Horrible Histories did not coin that phrase, they did create a catchy tune to go with it. Watch it here: https://youtu.be/rTdTDCRKvvM Helpful hint: Too many Thomases? There were four important Thomases in Henry VIII’s life: Thomas Wolsey – Henry’s closest adviser, Archbishop of York. He was accused of treason by Henry, but died in 1530 from hitting his head/natural causes. Thomas Cranmer – Archbishop of Canterbury. He helped build the case for Henry’s annulment, and he outlived Henry. Thomas Cromwell – served as Henry’s chief minister. He organised Henry’s (unsuccessful) marriage to Anne of Cleves & was executed by Henry’s orders in 1540. Thomas More – served as Henry’s Lord High Chancellor. He was executed by Henry’s orders in 1535 for refusing to support Henry’s break with Rome. 6|2HY Henry VIII OverSimplified https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewLpXw6uN28 1. What kind of career was Henry VIII trained for as a child? 2. At what age did Arthur marry Catherine of Aragon? 3. This marriage created an alliance between England and __________________ 4. How old was Henry VIII when he became king? 5. Henry had the blood of House of __________________ and House of ___________________ 6. What nation did Henry want to fight against? Skip 7:15 minutes to 8:15 minutes 7. How did Thomas Wolsey help Henry? 8. Why did Henry have to give up his conquest of France? 9. What was the Field of the Cloth of Gold? Stop at 11 minutes 7|2HY Henry VIII Homework / Research Timeline of Henry’s Reign Complete this timeline by filling in the missing dates, and then make brief notes on the following key moments. Date Event Notes 1501 Catherine of Aragon (Queen of England) marries Arthur (Prince of Wales), older brother to Henry VIII 1502 Arthur dies 1504 Pope Julius II annuls marriage of Catherine and Arthur. Henry VIII accedes the throne of England and marries Catherine 1513 Henry invades France, Battle of the Spurs 1516 Princess Mary born, daughter of Catherine and Henry 1517 Martin Luther posts 95 Theses on Wittenburg Church door 1520 The Field of the Cloth of Gold 1521 Henry writes Assertio Septem Sacramentarum and is given the title Defensor fides (‘Defender of the Faith’) by Pope Leo X 1525 William Tyndale expelled from England Henry falls in love for Anne Boleyn and seeks an annulment of his marriage to Catherine. 8|2HY Henry VIII 1529 Downfall of Thomas Wolsey Reformation of Parliament begins H8 marries Anne Boylen; Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury; Princess Elizabeth born; John Frith burned at the stake 1534 Act of Supremacy passed Act of Succession passed 1535 Thomas More executed Anne Boleyn executed 1536- Thomas Cromwell helps to 41 dissolve monasteries Pilgrimage of Grace 1537 Prince Edward born; Jane Seymour dies 1539 Great Bible commissioned H8 marries Anne of Cleves Thomas Cromwell executed 1540 H8 marries Catherine Howard 1543 H8 marries Catherine Parr 1547 H8 dies – Edward VI accedes the throne… 9|2HY Henry VIII Young Henry’s Power Moves Henry VIII became King of England in 1509, aged 18. He was determined to be a great king, looked up to by everyone. He showed this in lots of ways: his grand portraits, his keenness for French wars and his behaviour towards his court and to other kings. Henry the Scholar Henry VIII enjoyed an excellent education and spoke French, Latin and Spanish. He was also a talented musician, able to play a range of instruments, sing and even compose his own pieces. The young king was a natural athlete and sportsman. Foreign visitors to his court described him as a gifted archer and tennis player, but it was hunting that really excited Henry. He could tire as many as eight horses a day before finally running out of steam. Jousting and wrestling tournaments were also favourite pastimes and Henry was regarded as a strong and fearsome opponent. Henry the Spender He wanted to control every detail of his daily life. One measure of greatness at that time was the number of people that surrounded you; the more people, the more important you were. When Henry stayed at Hampton Court he was attended by nearly 1,000 people. Controlling this number of people was quite a job and in 1526, while he was staying at another of his palaces at Eltham, a strict and detailed set of rules was drawn up by his closest advisor Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. The Ordinances (orders) of Eltham can tell us about Henry VIII’s rules at court and how he controlled the behaviour of those who surrounded him behaved. Henry’s father Henry VII was always careful with money and his court was not famous for its show of wealth. Henry VIII wanted to change all that. When he met one of his rivals, King Francis I of France, just outside Calais in 1520, a complete town of tents and timber was built for the meeting. Yards of velvet, satin and cloth of gold were sent to decorate the temporary palaces. It was called ‘The Field of the Cloth of Gold’. Henry loved all this display: by the end of his reign he had amassed 55 palaces, 2,000 tapestries, 150 paintings and nearly 1,800 books. He also owned 41 gowns, 25 doublets (a snug fitting buttoned jacket), 20 coats, eight cloaks, 15 capes and eight walking sticks. Along with royal tournaments, Henry spent huge sums of money on pageants, feasts and other entertainments. Unlike his father, Henry had a taste for luxury and made little attempt to control his spending. He paid vast sums for building work and decoration to improve his various royal palaces. Henry also wore only the finest clothes and jewellery. By the mid- 1520s, the extra money his father had left in the treasury was all used up. 10 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I The number of people waiting on the monarch was another sign of power. But even better than numbers was the quality of your servants. Kings and great barons had always taken young boys from their friends’ families into their households, to serve as pages and esquires. It provided the young boys with a good education for leadership: they learnt how great men ran their affairs, how to behave, and made contacts, which would be useful all their life. However, to get on at Henry’s court young men had to have more than noble blood. Sixteenth century monarchs were expected to play, sing and compose music, read and discuss books, speak several languages as well as wrestle, play tennis, joust and hunt. Henry could do all these things superbly and his favourite ‘gentlemen of the privy chamber’ did as well. Not surprisingly, some of the older aristocrats looked with disdain at these clever young men – ‘minions’, or pretty boys, as they called them. Henry was intelligent enough to see that there was a point to all this. His father, Henry VII, had won the throne of England by fighting for it, winning the battle of Bosworth in 1485. Henry VII did not have a strong claim to the throne, so his son’s was not much better. In the 15th century kings and barons had been rivals for power. In fact, some barons were more powerful than the king himself. Henry VIII could see that putting a big distance between the monarchy and the barons was an effective way of building up his magnificence and his separate position, which would ultimately make his rule more secure. Everything outlined in the extracts from the Ordinances of Eltham, therefore, built up this separateness and distinction. The elaborate rules about who was allowed to get near the king and when, the requirement to be well-behaved and for servants to keep the King’s secrets, all contributed to this image-building. “When you know what a hero he now shows himself, how wisely he behaves, what a lover of justice and goodness, what affection he bears to the learned, I will venture to swear that you will need no wings to make you fly to behold this new and auspicious star” – Lord Mountjoy, a leading advisor of the king, writing in 1509 to his old teacher about a young Henry, just after Henry had become king 11 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I These are extracts from the Ordinances of Eltham from 1526, which sets out the start to the King’s day. Source 1a: Simplified transcript [it] is ordered, that from now on the pages of the Kings chamber shall daily arise at seven of the clock, or soon after; making the fire and warning the esquires for the body similarly to arise soone after that hour, so as they may be ready in the King’s chamber, dressed in all such things as relate, by eight of the clock at the latest. And moreover, that none of the servants of the said esquires for the body come within the pallet chamber, but be attendant at the door of the same, as well as pages, at the request and commandment of the said esquires, fetch in and bear out their night gear, and all other their clothing; and in the same way make them ready, as well at night as in the morning Source 1b: 12 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Simplified transcript It is also ordered that the six gentlemen of the privy chamber, by seven of the clock or sooner, as the King the night before decides to arise in the morning, shall be in the said chamber there diligently attending upon his Grace coming forth; being ready and prompt, to apparel and dress his Highness, putting on such garments, in reverent, discreet and sober manner, as shall be his Grace’s pleasure to wear; and that none of the said grooms or ushers do approach or presume (unless they be otherwise by his Grace commanded or admitted) to lay hands upon his royal person, or intermeddle with preparing or dressing of the same, but only that said six gentlemen : except it be to warm clothes or to bring to the said gentlemen such things as shall apply to the apparelling and dressing of the King’s said person. Write down what the pages and esquires did each morning. What did the gentlemen of the privy chamber have to do? Who were the only people allowed to touch the King? Why do you think this was? 13 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I This section of the ordinances deals with the duties of the King’s barber and the behaviour of his staff. Source 2a & 2b: Simplified transcript It is also ordered, that the King’s barber shall be daily by the King’s uprising, ready and attendant in the privy chamber there having ready, his water, cloths, knives, combs, scissors, and such other stuff as he needs, for trimming and dressing the King’s head and beard. And that the said barber take special regard to the pure and clean keeping of his own person and apparel; using himself always honestly in his conversation, without resorting to the company of vile persons, or of misguided women, in avoiding such dangers and annoyance as by that means he might do unto the King’s most royal person; not failing this to do, upon pain of losing his room, and further punishment at the King’s pleasure…nor also that there be no manner of playing at dice or cards, used within the same chamber, after the King be served for All-night, except it with the King’s permission. How often did the barber visit the King? What tools did he use to help him with his job? What was the punishment for the barber if he mixed with the wrong kind of people? Why do you think that it was important who he mixed with? What were you not allowed to do in the King’s chamber? When was the only time you would be allowed to do this? Why do you think it was so important? 14 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I This piece of the document deals with how the people who worked in the Privy Chamber should act. Source 3: Simplified transcript ITEM, it is ordained that such persons as be appointed to the privy chamber, shall be loving together, and of good unity and accord keeping secret all such things as shall be done or said in the same, without disclosing any part thereof to any person not being for the time present in the said chamber, and that the King being absent, without they be commanded to go with his Grace, they shall not only give their continual and diligent attendance in the said chamber, but also leave asking where the King is or is going, be it early or late, without grudging, mumbling, or talking of the King’s pastime; late or early going to bed. What do you think is meant by the sentence ‘shall be loving together, and of good unity and accord’? Why do you think they were not allowed to talk about what happened in the chamber? If you had to write a list of rules for the people who worked in the chamber, what would they be? 15 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Pretend you are making a film about how King Henry VIII gets up. Below there is a table with: a column for the shot number (close-up, wide angle, fish lens, slow motion, etc) a column for what each shot would show (what activity is seen in the shot) a third column for the voice-over (words to go with the shot) a fourth column to your table for the King’s words (what the King would say in each shot). Fill in the table for what you think you would put in your film. Shot # Shows… Voice over King’s words 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/henry-viii/ 16 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry the General Henry was greatly impressed by the achievements of King Henry V (1386-1422) who had won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, despite being heavily outnumbered by the French. Unfortunately, King Henry VIII was not very skilled as a general. In 1513 he tried to re- conquer long lost land in France; he defeated the French army at the Battle of the Spurs, but his invasion ended in failure. There were some successes in his reign. During Henry's first campaign in France, in 1513, the Scots invaded the North of England. Henry's wife Catherine organised an English army, which totally defeated the Scots. Henry also understood the need for England to have a powerful navy and increased the fleet to fifty ships. He spent money on large cannons that could be used in ship-to-ship battles, a more effective tactic than attempting to board and capture enemy ships. Work was done to improve ports and dockyards around the country and Henry ordered the building of a string of fortresses to defend the English coast. Some historians have called Henry the father of the modern navy. Henry was able, but not as intelligent as he believed himself to be. Historian John Guy has described Henry as having a “second-rate mind with what looks suspiciously like an inferiority complex”. Throughout his reign Henry wanted to conquer more territory, especially in France, and was obsessed with chivalry and honour. Honour was an important concept in Europe in this period, not just an empty word but a concept that could start expensive wars and battles over supremacy. Below is an image of the ship Henry Grace of God, built in 1514, was armed with 43 heavy cannons and 141 swivel guns. The ship was top-heavy and almost unsailable in heavy seas. lt never fought in a battle, but was used for show (such as taking Henry Vlll to his meeting with Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold). 17 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry and Politics Using the information on the website below, answer the following questions. This can be completed as a class exercise together, or as homework. The Field of Cloth of Gold | Hampton Court Palace | Historic Royal Palaces (hrp.org.uk) 1. Briefly explain why there was tension between England and France before 1520. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Why was the meeting delayed until 1520? …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. Describe some of the festivities that took place during the meeting. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Describe how Henry demonstrated his athletic prowess. Was Henry always the stronger athlete compared to Francis? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 5. Explain Thomas Wolsey’s role in the Field of the Cloth and Gold. What was he trying to achieve? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 6. What consequences came from the Field of the Cloth and Gold? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I ‘The Field of the Cloth of Gold’, 1545. The Royal Collection, Hampton Court. Henry had showcased his military might and the magnificence of his Court, and Henry and Francis had used their meeting to satisfy their mutual curiosity and display their athleticism, strength, and power. However, England remained the smallest of the leading powers when compared to powerful, wealthy, and expanding France, and Charles V of Habsburg’s empire was the biggest in Europe in the last 700 years. Henry obsessed over how he compared to these other European monarchs. If he was going to prove his worth and continue to exercise power in European politics, he needed something more. With Francis I known as Christianissimus (most Christian), and Charles V having recently been named Holy Roman Emperor, Henry needed a title… Compare Henry’s territory (in pink) with Francis I (France in green) & Charles V (Holy Roman Empire & Habsburg lands in yellow) 20 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Background on Religion  Brainstorm in pairs: How many different Christian groups can you think of? Religion in England in the sixteenth century was serious business. It was an intensely religious time, and atheism was not an option. Watch this Khan Academy clip (8 minutes) for an introduction to and overview of the role of the Catholic faith (up until the Protestant Reformation). https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/renaissance-and- reformation/protestant-reformation/v/protestant-reformation-1 Take notes on how the Church influenced peoples’ daily lives. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...……… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………...………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… The Reformation The Protestant Reformation occurred during Renaissance times (from the 14th century). It was a split in the Catholic Church where a new type of Christianity called Protestantism was born. If we go back to the year 1500, the Church (what we now call the Roman Catholic Church) was very powerful (politically and spiritually) in Western Europe (and in fact ruled over significant territory in Italy called the Papal States). The power of the rulers of Europe and England had increased in the previous century, and many were anxious to take the opportunity offered by the Protestant Reformation to weaken the power of the papacy (the office of the Pope) and increase their own power in relation to the Church in Rome and other rulers. 21 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I For some time the Church had been seen as an institution plagued by internal power struggles (at one point in the late 1300s and 1400s, church was ruled by three Popes simultaneously). Popes and Cardinals often lived more like kings than spiritual leaders. Popes claimed political as well as spiritual power. They commanded armies, made political alliances and enemies, and, sometimes, even waged war. Clearly, if the Pope was concentrating on these worldly issues, there wasn't as much time left for caring for the souls of the faithful. The corruption of the Church was well known, and several attempts had been made to reform the Church, but none of these efforts successfully challenged Church practice until Martin Luther's actions in the early 1500s. Watch this animated clip on Martin Luther and the Reformation (5 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhGGjRjvq7w Why did Luther nail 95 Theses to the church door? What was the outcome of this? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...……… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… During the Middle Ages, few people other than monks and priests knew how to read and write. However, with the Renaissance, more and more people became educated and learned how to read. At the same time, the printing press was invented allowing for new ideas, as well as scriptures of the Bible, to be easily printed and distributed. People were able to read the Bible for themselves for the first time. A monk named Martin Luther began to question the practices of the Catholic Church as he studied the Bible. He found many areas where he felt the Bible and the Catholic Church disagreed. Martin Luther was the first person to translate the Bible into German. He could print copies, because Johannes Gutenberg had invented a way to print a number of copies (approximately 50-100) at a relatively low price. On October 31, 1517 Luther took a list of 95 points where he thought the Church had gone wrong and nailed it to the door of a Catholic Church in Wittenberg, Germany. In general, Martin Luther's posting of the 95 theses on the door of the church is seen as the start of the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther - Leader of the Reformation by Lucas Cranach 22 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I The central points of his criticism were the following:  The church sold tickets of indulgences (forgiveness) from sins for money. This suggested that the rich could buy their way into Heaven while the poor could not - quite the opposite of what the Bible says.  Many people did not understand the sermon, because it was in Latin. The sermon is that part of the service where the priest teaches people things from the Bible. Because of this, ordinary people did not know very much about Christianity.  Religious posts were often sold to whoever was willing to pay the most money for them. This meant many priests did not know much about Christianity, so they told the people many different things. Some of those things had little to do with what was written in the Bible. The greed and scandalous lives of the clergy had created a split between them and the peasants. Furthermore, the clergy did not respond to the population’s needs because they did not speak the local language, or live in their own diocese (district). The papacy lost prestige. The recent invention of the printing press helped spread awareness of the Church's abuses, and coordinate a response. In 1515, the Pope started a new indulgence campaign to raise money for the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, a church in Rome. This was the last straw for Martin Luther. In the beginning, Luther had not planned to separate from the Catholic Church or to create a new religion; he wanted to reform the Catholic Church. After Luther nailed his list to the Church, the Catholics kicked him out of the church and called him a heretic. This may not sound bad today, but in those times heretics were often put to death. Many people agreed with Martin Luther that the Catholic Church had become corrupt. Much of northern Europe began to separate from the Catholic Church. Several new churches were formed, such as the Lutheran Church and the Reformed Church. New reform leaders such as John Calvin in Switzerland spoke out against the Catholic Church. 95 Theses - 95 points Luther wanted to make 23 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Catholic vs. Protestant Venn Diagram Watch the following clips and complete this Venn Diagram on the similarities and differences between Catholicism and Protestantism. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vvyn_8mpqYg (up to 7 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MfccgsLObAY (start from 1 minute in) Catholic Protestant 24 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Which priest is Catholic? Which is Protestant? Which church interior is Catholic? Which is Protestant? 25 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry and Religion Henry VIII had read Martin Luther’s work, and Thomas Wolsey (the Archbishop of York), knowing that a royal rejection would please Rome and the Pope, persuaded Henry to write a public response. In 1521, King Henry published the pamphlet defending the Catholic Church from the criticisms of Martin Luther, called the Assertio Septem Sacramentorum (Defence of the Seven Sacraments) – and dedicated it to Pope Leo X. When the Pope read Henry’s pamphlet he was so pleased that he awarded him a special title. Henry was the only ruler in Europe to be given this title. Therefore, Henry made sure it was widely known and it became an important part of his public image. Watch the following short clip (3 minutes) and answer the questions below: 11th October 1521: Henry VIII becomes 'Defender of the Faith' - YouTube 1. Why did Henry write the Assertio? …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Why did the Pope give Henry the title ‘Defender of the Faith’? …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… The title page and a decorated page from the Assertio 26 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I The King's Great Matter Perhaps the most significant event of Henry’s reign was the annulment (cancellation) of his marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Historians have different views as to the reasons why Henry VIII opted to change the course of religion in England, breaking from Rome and the Pope. Contemporary Catholic writers thought that it was caused by Henry’s desire to divorce Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn – he was lustful and immoral. Henry himself claimed that his marriage to Catherine was causing him agonies of conscience. He said he knew that the marriage was wrong and went against the Bible. This made him feel guilty and meant that God’s judgement was against him. Modern historians such as Richard Rex, John Guy and Susan Brigden agree that the need for an heir was in fact the most pressing reason for the whole situation. Henry knew that for the Tudor dynasty to be stable he needed a male heir, and his marriage to Catherine had not produced one. The need for a royal annulment led directly to the Act of Supremacy in 1534 – had the Pope, Clement VII, agreed to an annulment there would have been no break from Rome. Pope Clement VII Although it was not uncommon for the Pope to grant annulments and divorces for monarchs, Henry’s was a delicate case. Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor, who was very powerful (his dominions in Europe included Austria, Spain, the Netherlands, Germany and Italy). In 1527, due to some complicated alliances, Charles V’s army was besieging the Vatican at the same time Henry sought his annulment. The Pope was essentially being held captive and was therefore not in a strong enough political position to grant Henry his wish. Therefore, Henry decided to act on his own authority. Consequently, Henry declared that the Pope had no legal (or spiritual) jurisdiction in England since he resided in Rome. According to this logic, the ruler of the land should be in charge of his people spiritually. Thus, Henry used the English parliament to pass various acts to declare himself the Head of the Church of England, and this was his break with Rome (the Papal headquarters). The resulting idea, the Royal Supremacy, was that the king was both head of the state and head of the Church, and was a completely new idea. Protestant writings supported it no more than Catholic ones did. Henry and his supporters (such as Thomas Cromwell, and later Thomas Cranmer) manipulated the English clergy into agreeing that he could have the title ‘Supreme Head’ of the English Church in 1531. In 1532, the clergy had agreed that the Church was subservient to the Crown in matters of law. In 1533, the Pope was told that if he refused to approve Henry’s actions, then the payments of the English Church to Rome would come to an end (and the Pope would lose valuable income). 27 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Another significant result of the break with Rome was that Henry decided to dissolve the monasteries. This is to say, that land formally owned by the Roman Catholic Church was either taken by the English crown or sold to English nobles. Henry grew extremely rich from this scheme since taxes (the tithe) that used to be paid to the Roman Catholic Church was now going into the royal coffers. Before going further, we must also remember that the sixteenth century was an era when religion and politics were intertwined. Political decisions had consequences for belief and faith; alterations to religious ceremonies or official doctrine indicated political stances. Ever since Martin Luther’s defiance of the Pope’s authority, the Protestant movement had taken on wider and more popular significance, let alone developed intellectual and academic substance through universities, especially Cambridge. Although Henry was never a convinced Protestant in the sense that he agreed with every belief (indeed he remained a stubborn opponent of Luther to his dying breath), his political decision to repeal (reverse) the Pope’s authority in England must also be seen through the lens of religion. In the short- and long-terms, the political, economic, and social (and subsequently military) consequences of ‘the King’s Great Matter’ transformed England in substantial ways. Remaining loyal to the Pope and traditional Catholicism became illegal. The King’s power expanded greatly into new areas such as the Church and religious matters. The King replaced the Pope at the top of the Church hierarchy. As he was resident in England rather than far away in Rome he was able to enforce policies much more forcefully and consistently. It enabled the financial exploitation of the Church by the monarchy ie. New annual tax of revenues. This led to the Valor Ecclesiasticus of 1535, a comprehensive survey and valuation of Church assets. Many trace the origins of modern English culture and sense of national identity to the Tudor period. The sixteenth century was, after all, the epoch when England’s navy grew, the English language was printed and spoken throughout the kingdom, the Book of Common Prayer (a book of prayers used by the new Church of England) was produced, and Shakespeare wrote his plays. 1. What factors made the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon one of the “most significant” events of Henry’s reign? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 2. Explain the consequences of Henry’s break from Rome over his marriage annulment for his position as King of England. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. Explain the longer-term consequences of Henry’s break from Rome. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… Henry’s New Laws In the sixteenth century, parliament met only when the monarch summoned it. Several years could pass between meetings of parliament. Parliament served two key purposes when Henry VIII became king in 1509. First, parliament met when monarchs needed to raise taxes. It played no role in the day-to-day governing of the country. It represented the entire population of the kingdom. When laws were created in parliament, it meant that the entire population consented to them. This was especially important regarding taxes; they could not be raised unless they received parliamentary consent. The second purpose that parliament served was to complete the kingdom’s business. In this role, parliament would meet to create laws that would be beneficial to the kingdom. Henry VIII’s earliest parliaments dealt with a variety of different matters, such as reforms that reversed some of his father’s unpopular policies, religious reforms, and raising money to fund Henry’s invasion of France in 1513 and again in 1522. Henry’s earliest 29 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I parliaments, therefore, followed the model of creating legislation that would benefit the people and that parliament alone could assent to taxation. To make the break with Rome official according to English law, Henry used his fifth meeting of parliament, known as the ‘Reformation Parliament’, to pass various pieces of legislation. He summoned them in 1529, and it was one of the longest-running parliaments in history, lasting from November 1529 – April 1536. The politicians, who were not elected by their constituents, met in seven separate sessions during these seven years. These acts of parliament provided legal protection for Henry’s new marriage and secured the Tudor dynastic line. It also ensured that the English monarch was the Supreme Head of the Church of England, and no canon law (the legal code of the Church) could be passed without the approval of the monarch. Many of these changes are still in force today. For instance, Queen Elizabeth II still holds the title ‘Defender of the Faith’ and is considered to be the Head of the Church of England in a legal sense.  Submission of the The English church gave up the power to make church law Clergy (1532) without the King’s consent.  Act in Restraint of People could not appeal to the Pope to overturn Henry’s Appeals (1533) rulings on the church. It stated ‘This Realm of England is an Empire’, and that the Pope had no right to interfere in its business. More importantly, it meant that Henry’s divorce could go ahead, and he was free to marry Anne Boleyn.  Act of Succession Made Anne’s daughter, Elizabeth, Henry’s heir, and declared (1534) her half-sister, Mary, illegitimate. (This was later changed. When he died, Henry named his three children as his heirs: Edward, Mary and Elizabeth).  Act of Supremacy Stated that Henry had always been the ‘Supreme Head’ of the (1534) Church of England and Henry and his government took control of the Church.  Act of Treason (1534) Made opposing either the Act of Succession or the Act of Supremacy punishable by death. There were 308 executions for treason in Henry VIII’s reign, and on top of that Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy.  Act for Extinguishing Another step towards further severing England from the Pope the Authority of the and the Roman Catholic Church. Bishop of Rome (1536)  Act for Dissolution of Began the dissolution of the monasteries. Lesser Monasteries (1536)  Statute of Allowed Henry to pass any law that he wanted without having Proclamations (1539) to involve Parliament (aka Henry’s authority was only second to God!). 30 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I OverSimplified https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewLpXw6uN28 Cont. from 13:15 minutes 1. Why was Henry unhappy with Thomas Wolsey? 2. Henry claimed his marriage to Catherine should be annulled because the Pope had incorrectly allowed him to __________________________________. 3. Two years on, what was the outcome of Henry’s divorce trial? 4. What happened to anyone who disagreed with Henry’s break from the Catholic Church? 5. In the year ___________ , Henry fell heavily from his horse and may have suffered from ______________________________. 6. What was Thomas Cromwell’s plan to get rid of Anne Boleyn? 7. Who was Jane Seymour? 8. Why was Henry so unhealthy? 9. Summarise the similarities and differences between Catholicism and the Church of England. 10. What happened to Jane Seymour? 31 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 11. Why was Thomas Cromwell executed? 12. Who was Henry’s next wife? How old was she? 13. Which of Henry’s wives survived their marriage? 14. In what year did Henry invade France again? 15. In what year did Henry die? How old was he? Dissolution of the Monasteries, 1536-1540 Between 1536 and 1540 Henry closed all the monasteries in England - an action known as the dissolution of the monasteries. This was partly because monks and nuns were supposed to be loyal to the Pope as leader of the Catholic Church, and not to Henry. Also, some were no longer leading spiritual lives and had become corrupt. However, first and foremost dissolution of the monasteries was an enormous and systematic money- gathering exercise that used the need to reform the monasteries as little more than an excuse for confiscating their wealth. The closures were mainly due to Henry's desperate need for money caused by his extravagant spending. This resulted in the closure of almost 900 religious houses, displacing 12,000 people from their religious orders. While some were allowed to remain or convert, many were given pensions to surrender their churches and many still were simply evicted with no compensation. There was no definitive list of the monasteries in England or their values. To determine how much money Henry would receive from the monasteries, in 1534 Henry ordered a visitation of the monasteries to discover and record the value of taxable income to ensure the crown was getting what it should receive. He asked Thomas Cromwell to appoint a series of commissioners who would travel to monasteries in their areas and create a survey of what they found. The results were recorded in the document known as the Valor Ecclesiasticus (1535-1536), which gave further justification for Henry to dissolve the monasteries and take their possessions (i.e. holy relics and gold ornaments), land, and money. It was needed to impose taxes accurately, but also revealed the wealth of the Church to a monarchy that was perpetually stretched for money.  What do Henry's actions suggest about his attitude to religion? Was he the pious ruler he claimed to be? 32 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Watch the following short clip (from 2:12 minutes to end) and answer the questions below: The Dissolution of the Monasteries – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDghw4FjqIw 1. What important functions did monasteries have? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Why do you think Henry targeted smaller monasteries first? (1536 Act of Dissolution) ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. What did Henry VIII do with the monastic land he had confiscated? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Explore an interactive map of the monasteries that were dissolved across England and Wales at the link below https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/eabbb11e62b941c1bf1474a83b5ce8a1 33 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Above is the illuminated title page of the Valor Ecclesiasticus, 1535. The book was written in Latin, and translates to ‘value of the church’. On the title page, Henry VIII is shown sitting on his throne with all his ministers around him. He holds a sceptre in one hand. Above him are heraldic animals – lions and dragons holdings flags, and the Tudor rose with a little crown. Many details were painted in gold. There were 22 volumes in all.  Why do you think the King’s book version of Valor was so visual? 34 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Valor Classroomiasticus Write a Valor Ecclesiasticus entry for your classroom. Work out the total value of your classroom in a standard week then work out a tenth of the value. This tenth is the tax your classroom owes the king. Discover the value of classroom using the following rules: The classroom is worth £3 in building materials. Each period of class use gives a £1 tithe. Each teacher using the classroom gives £2 in oblations. Each pen is worth 3s. Each highlighter is worth 2s. Each booklet is worth 8s. Each bookcase is worth £1. Note: one pound = twenty shillings, one shilling = twelve pennies. £ = pound, s = shilling, d = pence. 35 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Pilgrimage of Grace, 1536 Not everyone agreed with Henry’s change in religious policy. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a large rebellion that took place in the northern counties in the autumn of 1536. There was a sense of great discontent among ordinary people, and they were afraid that their religion was under attack. The rebels saw the investigations and surveys of religious houses (monasteries, abbeys and nunneries) as a challenge to their way of life. The rebellion was named the Pilgrimage of Grace as pilgrimages had been recently banned because the government saw them as superstitious. By choosing this name, the rebels expressed to the regime that they preferred traditional religious practices to the still undefined new religion. The protest movement compiled a list of weighty demands of their king in the hope of reversing worrying changes to traditional parish life. The principal aims of the Pilgrimage of Grace were: to restore relations between the Papacy and England. to restore the monasteries and prevent further closures. to restore Princess Mary as the king’s heir. to eliminate commoners from the King’s circle of ministers (especially Cromwell). to remove two of the main advisors responsible for the Reformation: the Archbishop of Canterbury Cranmer and Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester. to repeal (reverse) the 1536 Statute of Uses, a tax on inherited land. to ensure better political representation for the northern counties. The rebels, who called themselves ‘pilgrims’, did not want to replace their king, rather they considered him misguided by corrupt councillors, mostly either social upstarts or rich southern nobles only too keen to plunder the north of England for their own short-term gain. It did not help the volatile situation that the 1535 and 1536 harvests had been poor ones, rents were constantly increasing, and the policy of land enclosure – taking public hunting and fishing land for private use by the wealthy – was still ongoing. 36 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I The Pilgrimage of Grace took place in three different phases. Research the three phases and complete the table below. A useful website is https://brewminate.com/the-pilgrimage-of-grace-against-henry-viii- splitting-the-church-of-england-from-rome/  First phase – Lincolnshire rebellion, 2 – 12 October 1536 Cause of the rebellion Actions of the rebels Number of rebels Outcome of rebellion  Second phase – Yorkshire rebellion, 8 October – 15 December 1536 Cause of the rebellion Actions of the rebels Number of rebels Outcome of rebellion 37 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I  Third phase – Sir Francis Bigod’s revolt, 16 January – 10 February 1537 Cause of the rebellion Actions of the rebels Number of rebels Outcome of rebellion Watch the following short clip (3 min) and answer the question below: What was the significance of the Pilgrimage of Grace? – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfwjFULBpmQ 1. Did the pilgrims achieve any of their goals? Which ones? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… The ‘Banner of the Holy Wounds’ which was used by protesters during the Pilgrimage of Grace uprising of October 1536 38 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry the Pious Under Henry VIII the English Church did not make a quick journey from Catholicism to Protestantism. In fact, most traditional Catholic practices remained in place. Some key changes were made: Lutheranism banned, Clerical marriage banned, Monasteries dissolved, monks and nuns allowed to renounce their vows and re- join society, Pilgrimages banned, great shrines destroyed, Vernacular (the language spoken by ordinary people) scripture approved in form of Great Bible. If anyone broke Henry’s new religious laws, they would face life imprisonment, death by hanging, or death by burning. These changes must have seemed extremely significant at the time, but in comparison to Edward’s religious reforms later on, Henry’s religion was very much like traditional Catholicism. Henry VIII did agree with Luther on one thing – the importance of scripture (the Bible). Consequently, encouraged by Cromwell and Archbishop Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury, Henry authorised an English Bible that could be read by the laity (regular people) as well as the clergy. In 1538, the King sponsored a new Bible, translated from Latin into English. The new work was intended to be the realm’s single authoritative Bible. It was ordered to be chained to lecterns in every cathedral and parish church for communal and public reading by clergy and parishioners alike. Because of its large size, the book became known as the ‘Great Bible’. Study the title page of the Great Bible (1539) on the next page. What religious and political message is being communicated by this illumination? Hint: Identify who the figures on the right and left of Henry are. What is their role in the kingdom? How are they serving Henry – and by extension, God? …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 39 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I The Great Bible’s woodcut title page - the first page that every person would see – visually communicated the Royal Supremacy. The page depicts Henry sitting in majesty at centre-stage, directly below God, handing down his bible (the word of God) to his clergy (on the left) and his lords (on the right), who are seen passing the volume to the congregation, right at the bottom of the page. This was the first time that everyday people could see a Bible in a language that they could understand, and it was the King who had made this possible. Henry VIII had made himself head of the church and now it was he who would communicate the word of God to his people. 40 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry the Husband & Father 41 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I For more information on Henry’s six wives, including an 8 minute clip, consult this site: Henry VIII's 6 Wives in Order - Key Facts About Each Spouse (historyhit.com) Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon’s marriage was carried out to strengthen the relationship between England and Spain. Amidst several pregnancies, only one daughter survived, Mary I of England. Their divorce led to England’s split from Rome. In 1526, Henry VIII was struck by Anne Boleyn’s beauty and charm. The king tried to seduce the young woman numerous times, but she rejected his advances since she did not want to become a mistress. She gave birth to Elizabeth. In April 1536, Anne Boleyn was arrested for high treason. Although Anne had likely not committed any of the accusations, she was executed. Following the execution of Anne, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour, a lady-in-waiting. Anne soon gave birth to the king’s greatest wish: a male heir, Edward. According to some historians, Jane died because of puerperal sepsis, i.e. childbed fever. Arranged by Thomas Cromwell in 1540, Henry disliked his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves. According to Cromwell, Anne’s German background and Protestant upbringing would strengthen the Reformation in England. After 4 months of marriage, Henry VIII divorced Anne. Cromwell was executed. On the same day of Cromwell’s execution, Henry married Catherine Howard. On 2 November 1541, Katherine’s reckless behaviour was denounced by Archbishop Cranmer to Henry VIII. She was charged of unchastity before marriage, treason and adultery. Katherine was beheaded along with her said lovers in February 1542. On 12 July 1543, Catherine Parr became Henry VIII’s final wife. Thanks to her influence, Henry VIII passed an act that gave his daughters the right of succession to the throne of England. She outlived Henry. 42 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 43 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 44 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 45 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Source Work Source A – A painting of the family of Henry VIII, painted in about 1545, painter unknown. Most likely painted for Whitehall Palace, Henry’s principal residence. From left to right: Jane ‘the Foole’, a court entertainer, Princess Mary, Prince Edward, Henry VIII, Jane Seymour, Princess Elizabeth, William Somer, Henry VIII’s jester (with a monkey on his shoulder). [Visit https://www.rct.uk/collection/405796/the-family-of-henry-viii for a larger image] 1. Explain the nature, context and purpose of Source A. /3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 2. How important was image to Henry VIII? In your response, refer to Source A and your own knowledge. /6 ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry the Scholar We have many sources of information for Henry VIII’s life and actions; artworks, artefacts, letters, pamphlets and historical accounts. Some of the most valuable come from Henry himself (such as the Assertio Septem Sacramentorum). Read the following texts, apparently written by Henry VIII. 1. A Glasse of the Truthe was a key publication in the early propaganda campaign of Henry VIII. It was an 80-page long propaganda pamphlet in support of Henry VIII’s case for a divorce, published in September 1532, around the time that Henry and his Council finally decided to set in motion the proceedings that would lead to Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn and to the annulment in May 1533 of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. It addressed the common objection that, as Henry had an heir already, there was no urgent need to take further steps to secure the succession. It is thought the book was written by Henry himself, or that he had a large hand in it, although the book was published anonymously. “For though we have a female heir, which is both endowed with much virtue and grace in many dotes [talents] and gifts, yet if a male might be attained, it were much more sure, if we well perpend [consider] and ponder many urgent and weighty causes: amongst which this one is deeply to be foreseen, that if the female heir shall chance to rule, she cannot continue long without an husband, which, by God’s law, must then be her governor and head, and so finally shall direct this realm.” [excerpt from A Glasse of the Truthe] A Glasse of the Truthe argued that the royal marriage was invalid because no one could marry their brother’s widow and the Pope could not exempt a marriage from this law. English bishops, namely archbishops, could settle the matter within the realm. It also argued that it would be better for Henry VIII to have a male heir, because if he only had a female heir then she must one day marry, and she would either have to marry a close relative, a foreigner, or a subject, each of whom, for different reasons, is unacceptable. 2. Henry’s propaganda campaign continued. After Pope Clement VII’s refusal to annul Henry’s marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry’s Reformation Parliament (as it came to be known), had passed a series of Acts, designed to pressure the Pope into agreeing to the annulment. Henry and his advisors also wanted to secure the support of British clergymen to his cause. Henry launched a propaganda campaign in 1535. The King and his advisors sent letters instructing all the clergymen of his realm (bishops, abbots, priors, deans, archdeacons, provosts, parsons, vicars, curates, and all other ecclesiastical persons) to “preach the true and sincere word of God” to the people on Sundays and on all important feast days. This meant, of course, teaching them to acknowledge the Crown as the Supreme Head of the Church. 48 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I 3. Henry didn’t just write letters to nobles or the clergy; he also wrote poetry and love letters. These famous love letters from the King to Anne Boleyn are undated. There are thought to be 17 letters, possibly written over 1527-1528. They were found in the Vatican Library, possibly stolen from Anne and sent to the papacy during Henry VIII’s struggle for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The letters were written in French, and Anne’s replies to these letters are lost. “My mistress and friend: I and my heart put ourselves in your hands, begging you to have them suitors for your good favour, and that your affection for them should not grow less through absence. For it would be a great pity to increase their sorrow since absence does it sufficiently, and more than ever I could have thought possible reminding us of a point in astronomy, which is, that the longer the days are the farther off is the sun, and yet the more fierce. So it is with our love, for by absence we are parted, yet nevertheless it keeps its fervour, at least on my side, and I hope on yours also… as I cannot be with you in person, I am sending you the nearest possible thing to that, namely, my picture set in a bracelet, with the whole device which you already know. Wishing myself in their place when it shall please you. This by the hand of Your loyal servant and friend, H. Rex” Henry’s poems were quite short: "Oh, my heart!" By King Henry VIII O, my heart! and O, my heart, It is so sore! Since I must needs from my Love depart; And know no cause wherefore! You can read more of Henry VIII’s work here https://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudorbib.htm Did Henry VIII really write Greensleeves for Anne Boleyn? https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/greensleeves-did-henry-viii-write-song/ 49 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I How healthy was Henry VIII? By Raymond Lamont-Brown (The History Press: London, 2009), 9-12. Fat Henry sat upon the throne And cast his eye on ham sir. No, no, Sir cook, I do propone I think I'll have the lamb sir. Nineteenth-century nursery rhyme. The biographer of the sixteenth-century historian and philosopher, Edward, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury, pointed out to the world chat Henry VIII ‘laboured under the burden of extreme fat and [an] unwieldy body’. Luckily the king was dead at the time of the pronouncement, or the scribbler would have felt the edge of the axe that had decapitated two of Henry's wives. King Henry VIII’s reign from 1509 to 1547 stood at the centre of a cultural revolution in England, in which food preparation was to play a prominent part at court as the country renewed itself in an age of Renaissance and Reformation. For six years a team of experimental archaeologists have studied the workings of the Tudor kitchens at Hampton Court, the palace on the River Thames which Henry acquired from his doomed Lord Chancellor, Thomas Wolsey, in 1528. Hampton Court's kitchens formed a complex of 55 rooms, worked by a staff of around 200, serving twice-daily meals for a court of 600 people. Records show that in one year Henry's courtiers consumed 1240 oxen, 8200 sheep, 2330 deer, 760 calves, 1870 pigs, 53 wild boar, a multitude of fish species from cod to whale, a plenitude of fowl, from swans to peacocks, washed down with 600,000 gallons of ale. Food played an important part in Henry's profile as a sumptuous Renaissance prince and in the impressing of foreign diplomats and visitors. Henry VIII as a gargantuan trencherman exhibited a personal assertion of national independence in Catholic Europe and a front for Tudor state power. lt is likely, too, that Henry increased his ‘comfort eating’ on the death of Jane Seymour, his third wife and love of his life, on 24 October 1536, twelve days after the birth of her son. Physically Henry VIII was 6ft 2in tall and his well-built frame became massively fat as he grew older. As a youth - he was eighteen when he came to the throne - he was a pale- skinned, blue-eyed, auburn-haired charmer of ‘fair countenance'’ one Venetian visitor remarked ‘His Majesty is the handsomest potentate I ever set eyes on’ and a vigorous player of tennis, rider of horses and a skilled wrestler. And the Spanish ambassador noted that Henry's ‘limbs were of gigantic size’. A study of his suits of armour in the Tower of London and elsewhere show that by 1512 the king had a 32in waist, which increased in the early 1520s to 35in, then 54in in 1545. His portraits too show his swelling to farness wherein Cornely’s Matsys's 1544 portrait of him shows Henry with cheeks sagging pendulously with fat, and his eyes and mouth mere slits within bulbous swellings. From the 1540s Henry suffered from increasing periods of ill health. He endured ulcers for many years, eventually in both legs. Commentators have supposed these were a result of 50 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I syphilis (a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that can cause serious health problems without treatment), but no evidence for the diagnosis has ever been offered. Certainly the records of his chief apothecaries, Richard Babham, Cuthbert Blackeden and Thomas Alson, show no administrations of the then treatment mercury. None of his wives or known mistresses had the disease and his children showed no evidence of congenital syphilis. Yet, ulceration could have come about through varicose veins, or damage through jousting accidents or at the hunt. Henry had periods of remission, then agonising swelling and discharge; he also became depressed and the pain added to his scary, unpredictable temper. Henry's biographer Edward Hall also pointed out that by 1528 Henry suffered from bladder trouble and water retention. In all this exercise was made more difficult and Henry put on weight rapidly. By 1546 he could hardly walk; he was carried inside and out in a set of wooden, velvet and gold-decorated specially-constructed chairs called ‘trams’, probably like the later sedan chairs. He had to be winched onto his horse and his armour was cur open to accommodate his swollen legs. Leg bandages oozing stinking pus from his ulcers caused courtiers to always remember their scented pomanders. Henry died at Whitehall Palace at around 2 o'clock on the morning of Friday 28 January 1547 at the age of 55. The king's cadaver lay in its anthropoid lead coffin within a 6ft 10in elm chest in the Privy Chamber prior to its lowering into the vault in St George's Chapel at Windsor; it took sixteen Yeomen of the Guard ‘of exceptional height and strength’ to manoeuvre the coffin. It is recorded that during a funeral service at the Bridgettine monastery of Syon Abbey, Isleworth, Middlesex, en route for Windsor, Henry's coffin burst open spreading ‘offensive matter’, and filling the chapel with ‘a most obnoxious odour’. Dogs were discovered soon after licking up the monarch's remains. In 1813 the vault was opened at Windsor and Henry's coffin was seen to have ‘gaped open’ to reveal his ‘awesome skeleton’. It seems that the king's heart and viscera, removed during the process of embalming, remained in London, to be buried in the chapel of Whitehall Palace. If a death certificate had been issued for the psychotic, paranoid bully that was Henry VIII, modem medical historians would suggest that entries could include amyloid disease, Cushing's syndrome (i.e. abnormality of the adrenal glands), chronic nephritis with uraemia and gravitational ulcer of the leg. [t is estimated that Henry had a BMI of 35 and probably weighed between 25-30 stones (190 kg). Thus today, Henry would be described as being morbidly obese; its cause a matter of learned opinion. 51 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Neatstung Pie: A Favourite Recipe of Henry VIII Seeth your Neats [any cattle) tung very tender and slice it in diamond slices, wash it with vergious [sour fruit juice), season it with Pepper and salt, cinarnon and ginger, then lay it in your coffin [dish) with Corance [raisins), whole Mace, Onions being very small minced with marrow or else very sweet butter, some Sugar & some dates being very small minced and put therein some vergious. - A.W, A Book of Cookrye Very necessary for all such as delight therein (1588) While Henry VIII's courtiers were feasting on pheasant and venison, the staple diet of his subjects was bread and cheese. Even the bread quality reflected status. Most folk ate Carter's bread, a cheap dough made of wheat and rye; while those of the yeomanry class - that is, small farmers and those ranking below gentlemen - ate Ravel bread made from wholemeal. On Henry's table would be Manchet, fine bread of costly white wheat flour. To drink, all levels of society consumed hopless beer while Henry's guests drank fine French wines. Water was not drunk as most sources were contaminated. Fruit juices were not common as soft drinks. Cherries, strawberries and apples were plentiful in season, but citrus fruit could only be found at Henry's court, or at the houses of the nobility. Nevertheless, the Boke of Kervynge of 1508 warned royal cooks: ‘Beware of green sallattes & raw fruytes for they wyl make your sovereyne seke’. The sale of fruit was banned during the times of Plague. All over Henry's realm animals were slaughtered in November, with meat dried, smoked or salted; thus, meat was seldom fresh. While Henry's table groaned with the best quality cuts, lesser folk mostly ate bacon. It was illegal to poach from a landowner's tracts, with severe penalties for those caught, but pigeons and rabbits in the wild were fair game. Wild-fowlers supplied the best for Henry's kitchens, and those who lived on the coast had an ample supply of fish. Generally courtiers avoided sea fish as fresh fish did not transport well on poor roads. This caused some problems for aristocratic Roman Catholics who perforce had to eat fish on Fridays if they had no access to river 52 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I The End of Henry VIII As Henry grew older, he grew fatter and more irritable. He developed an ulcer on his leg after a jousting accident, which leaked pus and caused him agony. Some historians think this may help to explain why Henry became even more brutal to those closest to him towards the end of his reign. In 1540, he executed Thomas Cromwell, one of his most trusted ministers. In 1542 his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, suffered the same fate. After the fall of Cromwell, Henry’s reign was relatively stable. This was partly due to his ailing health, and inability to be as physically active as he previously was. For example, Henry wished to invade and wage war against France in 1544 (for a second time). He therefore raised taxes and raised an army. Henry managed to capture the city of Boulogne. Despite the celebrations, this was no great victory. The cost of war left England nearly bankrupt. All the money raised from the dissolution of the monasteries had been wasted on another unsuccessful war. Traditionally, Henry would be proud to lead his troops into battle, but although he did visit his army at Boulogne, he was too sick, too old, and simply too fat to do this. Historian Susan Maclean Kybett ascribes his demise to scurvy, which is caused by insufficient vitamin C most often due to a lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in one's diet. A 2010 study suggested that the king may have been of Kell-positive blood type. This would explain the deaths of seven of his ten children at, or soon after, birth. His mental deterioration around age 40 could be explained by McLeod Syndrome (a genetic disorder linked to being Kell-positive); this was supported by the revelation that Henry may have inherited Kell from his maternal great-grandmother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg. Henry VIII’s last will and testament was drawn up in December 1546, before his death at Whitehall Palace on 28 January 1547. To understand the importance of Henry’s will, we must remember Henry’s Acts of Succession. The first Act, in 1536, had declared his daughters Mary and Elizabeth to be illegitimate. It stripped them of their title of ‘Princess’ and blocked them both from the throne, leaving Henry without an heir. His hopes lay with his new wife Jane Seymour, and the Act named her children or the children of any wife that followed her, as his successor. By the time the 1544 Act of Succession was issued, Jane Seymour had given birth to Edward. He was named as heir, with Mary and Elizabeth re-instated (but not re-legitimized) after their half-brother. The 1544 Act still gave Henry ‘full and plenary power and authority to give, dispose, appoint, assign, declare, and limit [the succession], by your letters patents under your great seal or else by your last will made in writing and signed by your most gracious hand’. This granted Henry the right to appoint his successor in his will, so deciding the future of the country. Henry’s power would thus continue even after his death. No royal will had done this before. When, on the 30 December 1546 Henry’s final will was drawn up and stamped, it was indeed his nine-year-old son Edward who was appointed as his successor. Edward VI acceded to the throne, as ‘King of England, Ireland, and France, Defender of the Faith and Supreme Head of the Church of England’. Henry’s will was dedicated, as his life had 53 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I been, to ensuring the succession and the continuation of the Tudor dynasty. Henry died in 1547. Some say he departed with the name of Jane Seymour, his favourite wife, on his lips, but others claim he cried out 'Monksl Monks!' After Henry died, his son, Edward VI, acceded the throne in 1547 as a nine year old. Henry got his wish to be succeeded by his male heir, though the majority of his reforms were later repealed. His will was extraordinary for another reason. Throughout Henry’s life he had remained a pious man despite all that had come to pass. While Henry’s public policies had triggered the English Reformation, Henry’s private faith had remained distinctly Catholic. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Assessing Henry’s Life Now that you have worked through the booklet, complete the following activities on the next pages to help you form a judgement on Henry’s reign… Activity Write an information panel (the kind you would find next to an exhibit in a museum) to go next to this portrait of Henry VIII, painted by the Dutch artist Hans Holbein in 1537. Should history remember Henry VIII as a hero or villain? Use the sentence starters below to help you write your panel; Henry VIII had a clear idea of the kind of leader he wanted to be… In some ways, Henry did live up to his heroic image of a king… However, in other ways Henry did not live up to this image… Overall, I think history should remember Henry VIII as a hero/villain because… 54 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Activity Complete the table below. Use the evidence throughout the booklet to decide whether Henry lived up to the public image he wanted to give. Score Henry out of ten, but make sure you give your reasons and evidence in the final column. Public image Score /10 Evidence for your score Henry was an intelligent and wise ruler Henry was wealthy and ensured the country was prosperous Henry was able to win wars and keep the country safe Henry was a powerful ruler Henry was a pious ruler who would defend the faith 55 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Judging Henry - Biographical Sketches Read this short biography of Henry VIII taken from the official website for the Royal Family of Great Britain: Henry VIII (r.1509-1547) | The Royal Family (accessed 5/7/22). HOWEVER, before you start, consider the perspective of this article. How might this affect the way Henry’s life is portrayed? Henry VIII was born at Greenwich on 28 June 1491, the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He became heir to the throne on the death of his elder brother, Prince Arthur, in 1502 and succeeded in 1509. In his youth he was athletic and highly intelligent. A contemporary observer described him thus: 'he speaks good French, Latin and Spanish; is very religious; heard three masses daily when he hunted... He is extremely fond of hunting, and never takes that diversion without tiring eight or ten horses... He is also fond of tennis.' Henry's scholarly interests included writing both books and music, and he was a lavish patron of the arts. He was an accomplished player of many instruments and a composer. Greensleeves, the popular melody frequently attributed to him is, however, almost certainly not one of his compositions. As the author of a best-selling book (it went through some 20 editions in England and Europe) attacking Martin Luther and supporting the Roman Catholic church, in 1521 Henry was given the title 'Defender of the Faith' by the Pope. From his father, Henry VIII inherited a stable realm with the monarch's finances in healthy surplus - on his accession, Parliament had not been summoned for supplies for five years. Henry's varied interests and lack of application to government business and administration increased the influence of Thomas Wolsey, an Ipswich butcher's son, who became Lord Chancellor in 1515. Wolsey became one of the most powerful ministers in British history (symbolised by his building of Hampton Court Palace - on a greater scale than anything the king possessed). Wolsey exercised his powers vigorously in his own court of Chancery and in the increased use of the Council's judicial authority in the court of the Star Chamber. Wolsey was also appointed Cardinal in 1515 and given papal legate powers which enabled him to by- pass the Archbishop of Canterbury and 'govern' the Church in England. Henry's interest in foreign policy was focused on Western Europe, which was a shifting pattern of alliances centred round the kings of Spain and France, and the Holy Roman Emperor. (Henry was related by marriage to all three - his wife Katherine was Ferdinand of Aragon's daughter, his sister Mary married Louis IX of France in 1514, and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was Katherine's nephew.) An example of these shifts was Henry's unsuccessful Anglo-Spanish campaigns against France, ending in peace with France in 1520, when he spent huge sums on displays and tournaments at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry also invested in the navy, and increased its size from 5 to 53 ships (including the Mary Rose, the remains of which lie in the Portsmouth Naval Museum). The second half of Henry's reign was dominated by two issues very important for the later history of England and the monarchy: the succession and the Protestant Reformation, which led to the formation of the Church of England. 56 | 2 H Y H e n r y V I I I Henry had married his brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon, in 1509. Catherine had produced only one surviving child - a girl, Princess Mary, born in 1516. By the end of the 1520s, Henry's wife was in her forties and he was desperate for a son. The Tudor dy

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