2024/25 Hygiene and Food Safety Past Paper PDF

For teaching purposes only! Food Hazards: Ricardo Assunção, DVM, PhD Physical & Chemical Hygiene & Food Safety I...

For teaching purposes only! Food Hazards: Ricardo Assunção, DVM, PhD Physical & Chemical Hygiene & Food Safety Integrated Master in Veterinary Medicine 2024/25 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Objectives to be attained during this lecture: To recognize that foods could be contaminated by different types of agents (physical, chemical and biological) - To know the main physical hazards, how they could occur in foods, and health consequences Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine To know the main chemical hazards, including regulated food ingredients, food contact materials, natural toxins, environmental contaminants, and process contaminants, how they could occur in foods, and health consequences WHY ARE THESE TOPICS IMPORTANT? 2  For teaching purposes only! How, why and where food contamination www.egasmoniz.com/pt may occur? The mechanisms leading to contamination are complex, with many possible sources at all stages - of the food chain Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Nevertheless, food contamination is an accidental occurrence, and it is always the result of a failure to maintain appropriate conditions throughout the production and preparation processes https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/foodborne-zoonotic-diseases 3  For teaching purposes only! How, why and where food contamination www.egasmoniz.com/pt may occur? Farm and at primary production level: vegetables and animals can be contaminated in many ways. Animals can be infected by - pathogens that do not make them ill, but that Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine can nevertheless contaminate the food produced; milk can be contaminated during milking procedures Slaughterhouse: incorrect handling practices and poor hygiene can lead to the contamination of meat and carcasses https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/foodborne-zoonotic-diseases 4  For teaching purposes only! How, why and where food contamination www.egasmoniz.com/pt may occur? Processing: food can be contaminated from contact surfaces and tools that are not properly - cleaned and sanitised, and/or from infected Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine food handlers Distribution and food preparation: contamination is mainly the result of poor hygiene, especially during food storage, handling, and preparation https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/foodborne-zoonotic-diseases 5  For teaching purposes only! How, why and where food contamination www.egasmoniz.com/pt may occur? Public (e.g. restaurants, pubs, canteens and - take-aways) and domestic settings: dishes may be contaminated at the final preparation stage Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine due to the improper use of utensils, surfaces that are not properly cleaned and disinfected, unhygienic handling of ingredients, or temperature abuse during cooking and/or conservation https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/foodborne-zoonotic-diseases 6 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Contaminant Codex Alimentarius. General Principles of Food Hygiene. CXC 1-1969 Any biological, chemical or physical agent, foreign matter or other - substances not intentionally added to food that may compromise food Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine safety or suitability Assurance that food will not cause adverse Assurance that food is acceptable for health effects to the consumer when it is human consumption according to its prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use intended use 7 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Types of contamination - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Biological Chemical Physical 8 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Hazard Codex Alimentarius. General Principles of Food Hygiene. CXC 1-1969; Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food or feed - with the potential to cause an adverse health effect Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Health is potentially affected by the hazard 9 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Types of hazards - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Biological Chemical Physical 10  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt 11 Physical hazards For teaching purposes only!  For teaching purposes only! https://www.fooddocs.com/post/p Physical hazards/ hysical-hazard-in-food www.egasmoniz.com/pt contaminants Easily (or not) identified hazards that can contaminate food at any stage of production - Foreign object that is unintended to be on the food Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Usually result from accidental contamination and /or poor food handling practices E.g. slivers of glass, human hair, nails, false nails, nail polish, pieces of jewelry, metal fragments from worn or chipped utensils and containers, dirt, stones, frilled toothpicks 12  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Physical hazard examples in food https://www.fooddocs.com/post/physical-hazard-in-food 13 For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Physical hazards: identification Foreign objects present in raw materials E.g. sand, soil, stones, etc. - Foreign objects contaminating food products during the processes to which they are subjected Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine E.g. glass, metals, plastics, coating and insulation materials, etc. Foreign objects contaminating food products by the handlers themselves E.g. hair, nails and personal items Components that are part of food products but should not be in the final product E.g. bones (meat and fish), seeds, stones, etc. 14  For teaching purposes only! Factors affecting the risk of a physical hazard www.egasmoniz.com/pt in food Size FDA: defines physical hazards as hard, sharp objects > 7 mm in length - Format Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Special Groups How the food is used Possibility of Detection and Control (Natural Constituents) 15 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! What can physical hazards in food cause? Repugnant food (Contaminant? Hazard?) Food-related injury: e.g. cuts in the mouth, throat, and intestines, broken teeth, or choking - Foodborne illness: can sometimes directly cause illnesses; in other cases, physical hazards in food items can trigger bacterial growth and other biological hazards, which can then cause symptoms of food poisoning Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Food recall: when a physical food hazard exceeds the limit provided by a ruling food agency, the affected foods can be recalled Legal actions or lawsuits: in serious cases, affected consumers can file for legal action against your food business Loss of profit: once customers hear about any news relating to your food business with any physical hazard contamination, their confidence in your approach may be negatively affected. In addition, handling a food recall requires a lot of effort and money. 16  For teaching purposes only! Causes, potential damage and sources of www.egasmoniz.com/pt physical hazards Causes Potential damage Sources Glass Cuts, blood loss, possible need for surgery Bottles, jars, lamps, utensils Primary production, floors, buildings, - Wood Cuts, infections, asphyxiation, possible need for surgery utensils Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Stones Choking, broken teeth Raw materials, flooring, buildings Metals Cuts, infections, possible need for surgery Workers, floors, wire, machinery Insulating materials Asphyxiation Construction materials Bone, spines, seeds Asphyxiation, trauma Raw materials, improper processing Plastics Choking, cuts, infections, possible need for surgery Operators, packaging materials Personal effects Choking, cuts, broken teeth, possible need for surgery Operators Insects and other Disease, trauma, asphyxiation Poorly protected entrances to facilities parasites 17  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Control options for physical hazards 18 Sara Mortimore, Carol Wallace (2013). HACCP: A Practical Approach https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5028-3 For teaching purposes only!  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt 19 Chemical hazards For teaching purposes only!  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Chemical hazards in Food https://youtu.be/CRZSsQt4tRY?feature=shared 20 For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Chemicals in food Chemicals are essential building blocks for everything in the http://www.chemistryland.com/CHM107/InNewLight/ChemistryInNewLight.htm world All living matter, including people, animals and plants, consists of - chemicals Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine All food is made up of chemical substances Chemicals in food are largely harmless and often desirable E.g. nutrients such as carbohydrates , protein , fat and fibre are composed of chemical compounds Chemicals can, however, have a variety of toxicological properties, some of which might cause effects in humans and animals E.g. exposed to them for a long time and at high levels 21 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Chemicals present in Food Nutrients Food production and preservation - Food supplements Food packaging materials and containers Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Natural contaminants Process contaminants Pesticides Metals Naturally occurring and man-made chemical compounds present in the environment 22 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Regulated food ingredients Some chemicals are added to food for a variety of technical reasons, including to make them taste better, last longer or be more nutritional: - Food additives Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Food enzymes Food flavourings Are they contaminants? Food supplements Hazards? Botanicals Why? 24 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Food Additives Substances added intentionally to foodstuffs to - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine perform certain technological functions, for example to colour, to sweeten or to help preserve foods 25 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Food Additives https://world-pt.openfoodfacts.org/produto/4002971243802/high-protein-pudding-vanilla-ehrmann In the European Union, all food additives are identified by an E number Food additives are always included in the ingredient lists of foods in which they are used - The most common additives to appear on food labels are antioxidants (to prevent deterioration caused by oxidation), colours, emulsifiers, stabilisers, gelling agents and Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine thickeners, preservatives and sweeteners E100s: generally food colours E200s: mainly preservatives and acids E300s: mainly antioxidants and acid regulators E400s: include emulsifiers, stabilisers, and thickeners E500s: include anti-caking agents and acidity regulators E600s: mainly flavour enhancers E900s: include sweeteners, glazing agents, foaming agents, and gases E1000s: other additives 26 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Food Additives Natural — e.g. red colour from beetroots, purple colour from grape skins Synthetic manufacture of: - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Products not found in nature (e.g. aspartame, an alternative to sugar) Many naturally found additives (e.g. ascorbic acid), as synthetic production is often less expensive 27  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt But, if they are Food Additives intentionally added, could they be harmful? 28 https://youtu.be/BSoRFqxRAoE?si=Q0eCUJjvF6J--U0A For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Nitrites (NO2 and Nitrates (NO3 -) -) Salts of nitrite and nitrate are commonly used for curing meat and other perishable produce https://theconversation.com/why-nitrates-and-nitrites-in-processed- - meats-are-harmful-but-those-in-vegetables-arent-170974 Uses: Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Preserve food Hinder the growth of harmful microorganisms, in particular, Clostridium botulinum (the bacterium responsible for life-threatening botulism) Nitrites + Nitrates → to keep meat red and give flavour Nitrates → to prevent certain cheeses from bloating during fermentation https://doi.org/10.2805/485488 29 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Nitrate (NO3 -) Photo of Nathan Nugent, Unsplash Found naturally in vegetables, with the highest concentrations occurring in leafy vegetables like - spinach and lettuce Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Can also enter the food chain as an environmental Photo of Mel Elías, Unsplash contaminant in water, due to its use in intensive farming methods, livestock production and sewage discharge https://doi.org/10.2805/485488 30 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Why Nitrites and Nitrates could be harmful? Nitrite and nitrate from food are rapidly absorbed by the body and, for the most part, excreted as nitrate - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Nitrite in food (and nitrate converted to Some of the nitrate absorbed by the nitrite in the body) may also contribute body is recirculated through salivary to the formation of a group of glands and part of it is converted by compounds known as nitrosamines, mouth bacteria into nitrite some of which are carcinogenic Absorbed nitrite can oxidise haemoglobin to methaemoglobin, an excess of which reduces the ability of red blood cells to bind and transport oxygen through the body https://doi.org/10.2805/485488 31 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Nitrosamines (N-NAs) in foods May be formed in a variety of Reaction products of foods under processing nitrosating agents (e.g. nitrites or nitrogen oxides) (NOX) conditions - E.g. in cured meat products, processed fish, beer and other Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, oils, processed vegetables and human amino-based substances (e.g. secondary amines) (R2NH) milk Heat treatment also produces and increases the levels of N- R2NH + NOX → R2NNO + HX NAs in food https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7884 32  For teaching purposes only! a substance present on or in a food www.egasmoniz.com/pt Food chain residues product, following the application of pesticides, biocides or the use of veterinary medicinal products Sometimes traces of chemicals are unintentionally present in food because of food production and preparation methods: - Feed additives & Residues of veterinary medicinal products Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Pesticides Food contact materials (chemicals from packaging and other food contact materials can also unintentionally end up in food) 33  For teaching purposes only! Feed additives & Residues of veterinary www.egasmoniz.com/pt medicinal products Feed additives: products used in animal nutrition to achieve an effect on the feed itself, on the animals, on food products obtained from the animals consuming the feed additive, or on the environment - Uses: to enhance the flavour of feed, to meet the need for certain nutrients or to increase the performance of animals in Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine good health They are used in feed for food-producing animals and in pet food Residues of veterinary medicinal products: Food-producing animals may be treated with veterinary medicines to prevent or cure disease. These substances may leave residues in the food from treated animals 34 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Residues of veterinary medicinal products Administration of veterinary medicinal products to food-producing animals may result in residues in food (meat, fish, milk, eggs and honey) obtained from these treated animals - establish acceptable thresholds for substances Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine contained in veterinary medicinal products for all foodstuffs of animal origin Photo of Daniel Quiceno M, Unsplash Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) maximum concentration of residue legally tolerated in a food product obtained from an animal that has received a veterinary medicine 35 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Residues of veterinary medicinal products Withdrawal period The time that must elapse between the last administration of a veterinary medicine and the - slaughter or production of food from that animal, to ensure that the food does not contain levels Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine of the medicine that exceed the maximum residue limit Start date Last Production of of the administration food from that treatment animal Withdrawal period 36 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Residues of veterinary medicinal products - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine... 37  For teaching purposes only! Photo of Eric Brehm, Unsplash Photo of Arjun MJ, Unsplash www.egasmoniz.com/pt Pesticides Plant protection products (include herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, acaricides, plant growth regulators and repellents) - contain at least one active substance → can be chemicals or Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine micro-organisms, including viruses, that enable the product to perform its action Also covers products such as biocides, which are intended for non-plant uses to control pests and disease carriers such as insects, rats and mice 38 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Pesticides Pesticide residues resulting from the use of plant protection products (PPPs) on food or feed crops may pose a risk to public health - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Maximum residue levels (MRLs) Upper levels of pesticide residues that are legally permissible in or on food or animal feed, based on good agricultural practice (GAP) and the lowest exposure necessary to protect vulnerable consumers 39  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt 40 For teaching purposes only!  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt 41 For teaching purposes only!  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt 42 For teaching purposes only!  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Pesticides https://youtu.be/aTm7i84mcMI?feature=shared 43 For teaching purposes only!  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt (FCMs) contact materials containers → food Foods and drinks often come in packaging or in Food contact materials Photo of Elena Rabkina, Unsplash 44 Photo of Paul Kapischka, Unsplash Photo of Elsa Olofsson, Unsplash For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Food contact materials E.g. Bisphenol A Can be made from a variety of materials such as plastics, rubber, paper and metal Traces of chemicals can migrate from the materials into the food and drinks we consume - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2021.112373 45 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Contaminants in food Natural toxins: naturally occurring substances that are produced by different organisms. From fungi, algae or plants including some weeds and sea plankton E.g. plant toxins such as alkaloids; mycotoxins. - Environmental contaminants: substances that are released into air, water or soil often as a result of Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine industrial or agricultural activities. They can also enter the food and feed chain. E.g. polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, persistent chlorinated pesticides, and brominated flame retardants; metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury. Process contaminants: chemicals that naturally form in food and feed during industrial processes or cooking E.g. acrylamide and furan. 46 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Mycotoxins (“mykes” = fungus + “toxicum” = poison) Toxic compounds that are naturally produced by different types of fungi (Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Alternaria and Claviceps) - Enter the food chain as a result of infection of crops before or after harvest Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Typically found in foods such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices Cause adverse health effects in humans and animals, ranging from gastrointestinal and kidney disorders to immune deficiency and cancer > 500 different mycotoxins. Main mycotoxins (from a Public Health perspective) Aflatoxins; Ochratoxins; Fumonisins; Trichothecenes; Zearalenone; Patulin; Ergot alkaloids. 47  For teaching purposes only! Aflatoxin B1 (the most toxic), B2 www.egasmoniz.com/pt Mycotoxins | Aflatoxins Aflatoxin G1 and G2 Aflatoxin M1... Amongst the most poisonous mycotoxins Produced by certain moulds: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus - Crops that are frequently affected by Aspergillus spp. include cereals (corn, sorghum, wheat and rice), Photo of Raspopova Marina, Unsplash oilseeds (soybean, peanut, sunflower and cotton seeds), spices (chili peppers, black pepper, coriander, Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine turmeric and ginger) and tree nuts (pistachio, almond, walnut, coconut and Brazil nut). Can also be found in the milk of animals that are fed contaminated feed, in the form of aflatoxin M1 Large doses of aflatoxins → can lead to acute poisoning (aflatoxicosis) and can be life threatening, usually through damage to the liver Photo of Polina Rytova, Unsplash Genotoxic (can damage DNA) and cause cancer in animal species; can cause liver cancer in humans 48 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Mycotoxins | Ochratoxin A Produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium Photo of Mike Kenneally, Unsplash Common contaminated food commodities: cereals and cereal products, coffee - beans, dry vine fruits, wine and grape juice, spices and liquorice Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Formed during the storage of crops Cause a number of toxic effects in animal species: the most sensitive and notable effect is kidney damage, but the toxin may also have effects on fetal Photo of Roberta Sorge, Unsplash development and on the immune system Clear evidence of kidney toxicity and kidney cancer in animals; this association in humans is unclear. 49 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Mycotoxins | Patulin Produced by a variety of moulds, particularly Aspergillus, Penicillium and Byssochlamys - Often found in rotting apples and apple products; various mouldy fruits, grains Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine and other foods. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitter_rot_of_appl Acute symptoms in animals include liver, spleen and kidney damage and toxicity to the immune system. For humans, nausea, gastrointestinal e disturbances and vomiting have been reported. Genotoxic, however a carcinogenic potential has not been demonstrated yet 50 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Mycotoxins | Fusarium toxins Include Trichothecenes such as deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV) and T-2 and HT-2 toxins - Zearalenone (ZEN) Fumonisins Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Photo of Polina Rytova, Unsplash Toxins occur on a variety of different cereal crops DON and ZEN are often associated with wheat T-2 and HT-2 toxins with oats Fumonisins with maize (corn) 51 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Mycotoxins | Fusarium toxins Trichothecenes can be acutely toxic to humans, causing rapid irritation to the skin or intestinal mucosa and leading to diarrhoea. Reported chronic effects in animals include suppression of the - immune system Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine ZEN has been shown to have hormonal, estrogenic effects and can cause infertility at high intake levels, particularly in pigs Fumonisins have been related to oesophageal cancer in humans, and to liver and kidney toxicity in animals 52  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Natural toxins | Mycotoxins 53 For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Plant toxins Phytotoxins = toxic chemicals produced by plants Naturally occurring phytochemicals or secondary - Cyanogenic glycosides metabolites formed by plants Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Furocoumarins Examples To protect themselves against various threats like Lectins bacteria, fungi, insects, and predators Solanines and chaconine Pyrrolizidine alkaloids Can be present in commonly consumed human foods like fruits and vegetables 54 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Plant toxins Cyanogenic glycosides Photo of Loren Biser, Unsplash https://www.thekitchn.com/sto Occur in at least 2000 plant species, e.g. cassava, sorghum, stone fruits, ne-fruits-23402977 bamboo roots and almonds - Potential toxicity of a cyanogenic plant depends primarily on the Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine potential that its consumption will produce a concentration of cyanide that is toxic to exposed humans In humans, the clinical signs of acute cyanide intoxication can include: Photo of Tetiana Bykovets, Unsplash https://www.aces.edu/blog production/grain-sorghum- rapid respiration, drop in blood pressure, dizziness, headache, stomach /topics/crop- ipm-guide/ pains, vomiting, diarrhoea, mental confusion, cyanosis with twitching and convulsions followed by terminal coma Death due to cyanide poisoning can occur when the cyanide level exceeds the limit an individual is able to detoxify 55 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Plant toxins Photo of Bernd Dittrich, Unsplash Furocoumarins Present in many plants such as parsnips (closely related to carrots and parsley), - celery roots, citrus plants (lemon, lime, grapefruit, bergamot) and some https://chatelaine.com/food/kitche n-tips/celeriac-celery-root/ medicinal plants Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Stress toxins Released in response to stress, such as physical damage to the plant Can cause gastrointestinal problems in susceptible people Phototoxic → can cause severe skin reactions under sunlight (UVA exposure) Photo of Jon Tyson, Unsplash Consumption of large quantities of certain vegetables containing high levels of furocoumarins 56 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Plant toxins Lectins Many types of beans (kidney beans have the highest - concentrations – especially red kidney beans) Photo of Shelley Pauls, Unsplash Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Destroyed when the dried beans are soaked for at least 12 hours and then boiled vigorously for at least 10 minutes in water https://vegbyswati.com/?p=784 57 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Plant toxins Solanines and chaconine (Glycoalkaloids) https://www.abc.net.au/science/artic les/2010/04/28/2884467.htm All Solanaceae plants (e.g. tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants) - Generally low levels High concentrations found in potato sprouts and bitter-tasting peel Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine and green parts, as well as in green tomatoes https://www.eatortoss.com/can- Plants produce the toxins in response to stresses like bruising, UV you-eat-green-potatoes/ light, microorganisms and attacks from insect pests and herbivores To reduce the production: store potatoes in a dark, cool and dry place, and not to eat green or sprouting parts 58 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins | Plant toxins Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) Toxins produced by an estimated 600 plant species https://poultrydvm.com/condition /pyrrolizidine-alkaloid-toxicity Main plant sources: families Boraginaceae, Asteraceae and - Fabaceae → many of these are weeds that can grow in fields Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine and contaminate food crops Can cause a variety of adverse health effects; main concern is the DNA-damaging potential, potentially leading to cancer Stable during processing, and have been detected in herbal teas, honey, herbs and spices and other food products, such as cereals and cereal products Cattle, horses, farmed deer, and pigs are most susceptible Chronic toxicosis that results in hepatic failure 59 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Natural toxins Ichthyotoxins Neurotoxic substances present in the muscles, skin and viscera of some fish (Ciguatera) - Saxitoxism Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Caused by eating shellfish contaminated with marine biotoxins PSP, DSP, NSP, ASP PSP – Paralytical Shellfish Poisoning They have no taste or smell DSP – Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning NSP – Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning and are not eliminated by ASP – Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning cooking or freezing Ichthyohemotoxism Due to contact with the blood of freshwater species (eel, lamprey whose blood is toxic - haemolysins) 60 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Biogenic Amines (BAs) Compounds that are commonly found in food and beverages such as meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, wine, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8020062 etc. - Most important BAs in food: Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Histamine Tyramine Putrescine Cadaverine β-phenylethylamine Agmatine Tryptamine Serotonin Spermidine Spermine Formation of biogenic amines and factors influencing their formation. FAAs are freeamino acids. 61 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Biogenic Amines (BAs) https://fishider.org/en/guide/osteichthyes/scombridae - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Histamine Present in most foods but in greater abundance in fish and fishery products. Main component in “scombrid poisoning” or “histamine poisoning” → consumption of fish of the Scombridae and Scomberesocidae families (tuna, mackerel, bonito, bluefish, etc.) → containing high levels of histidine → decarboxylated to histamine. 62 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Histamine - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine European Commission Regulations (2073/2005, 1441/2007, 365/2010) set food safety criteria for histamine in fish Applies to fish species within the Scombridae, Clupeidae, Eugraulidae, Coryphenidae, Pomatomidae, and Scomberesocidae families throughout their shelf life Sampling plan comprising nine units, two of which may be between 100–200 mg/kg of histamine and none above the limit of 200 mg/kg 63 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Histamine Health effects: disturbances in immune regulation, manifestation of gastroenterological symptoms, and neurological diseases - The biological effects of histamine receptors. Histamine of exogenous or endogenous origin is involved in the regulation of Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine a wide range of metabolic transformations by binding to four types of receptors, designated as H1–H4 subtypes. Receptors of the H1 subtype are localized in the GI tract and endothelium and are involved in allergic inflammation and vasodilation, while https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093207 receptors of the H2 subtype are highly expressed in various cells and tissues, such as B cells, T cells, dendritic cells, and gastric parietal cells. H2 receptors are involved in gastric acid secretion, relaxation of smooth muscle cells, and immune cell differentiation. The H3 receptors are expressed in neurons and play an important role in neurotransmission (neuronal function cognition, regulation of neuronal histamine turnover). The histamine H4R is expressed in a variety of immune cells and is involved in immunomodulation, including immune cell chemotaxis, immune response, and inflammation. The last two subtypes are characterized by high affinity for histamine. 64 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Environmental contaminants Metals - Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Dioxins and PCBs Brominated flame retardants, including PBDEs and HBCDDs 65 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Metals Arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury Can be present at various levels in the environment, e.g. soil, water and atmosphere - Can occur as residues in food because of their presence in the environment, as a result of human Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine activities such as 1. Farming 2. Industry or car exhausts 3. Contamination during food processing and storage Human exposure: from the environment or by ingesting contaminated food or water Their accumulation in the body can lead to harmful effects over time 66 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Arsenic Natural element in rocks and soil, water, air, and in plants and animals Human exposure: environment from some agricultural and industrial sources - Sometimes found in its pure form as a steel grey metal Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Usually part of chemical compounds: Inorganic compounds (arsenic combined with elements other than carbon): found in industry, in building products (such as some “pressure-treated” woods), and in arsenic-contaminated water; tends to be more toxic and has been linked to cancer Organic compounds (arsenic combined with carbon and other elements): less toxic than the inorganic arsenic compounds; found in some foods, such as fish and shellfish 67 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Arsenic Photo of Mgg Vitchakorn, Unsplash The highest levels of arsenic (in all forms) in foods can be found in: Seafood - Rice Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Rice cereal (and other rice products) It is a major part of the diet in many parts Mushrooms of the world Poultry Major component of many of the cereals eaten by infants and young children 68 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Arsenic Long-term adverse health effects from consuming food contaminated with arsenic vary depending on 1. Amount consumed 2. Length of time of exposure - 3. Age 4. Other exposures happening at the same time—either to arsenic from other sources, other contaminants, or to beneficial nutrients Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Fetuses, infants, and children are particularly vulnerable to the potential harmful effects from arsenic exposure because of their smaller body sizes, metabolism, and rapid growth Exposure to high levels of arsenic during times of active brain development is associated with adverse neurological effects such as learning disabilities, behavior difficulties, and lowered IQ For adults, long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic has been associated with skin disorders and increased risks for skin, bladder, and lung cancers For people of all ages, short-term exposure to very high amounts of inorganic arsenic can result in nausea, vomiting, bruising, and numbness or burning sensations in the hands and feet 69 www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Cadmium Environmental contaminant: natural occurrence and from industrial and agricultural sources Foodstuffs are the main source of cadmium exposure for the non-smoking general population - Food groups that contribute most of the dietary cadmium exposure: cereals and cereal products, Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine vegetables, nuts and pulses, starchy roots or potatoes, and meat and meat products Tobacco smoking can contribute to a similar internal exposure as that from the diet Health effects: Primarily toxic to the kidney and can cause renal failure Bone demineralization Human carcinogen (Group 1) Increased risk of cancer such as in the lung, endometrium, bladder, and breast 70  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Cadmium (...) 71 Photo of Tetiana Bykovets, Unsplash For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Lead Occurs naturally and, to a greater extent, from anthropogenic activities Occurs in organic and inorganic (predominant in the environment) forms - Food groups associated to higher exposure: Cereal products and grains, vegetables (especially Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine potatoes and leafy vegetables) and tap water Photo of Polina Rytova, Unsplash Health effects: Central nervous system is the main target organ for lead toxicity Developing brain is more vulnerable to the neurotoxicity of lead than the mature brain Cardiovascular effects Nephrotoxicity 72  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Lead (...) 73 For teaching purposes only! www.egasmoniz.com/pt For teaching purposes only! Mercury Photo of Jet Kim, Unsplash Metal released into the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources Methylmercury is by far the most common form in the food chain Food groups associated to higher exposure: Fish & other seafood, non-alcoholic beverages and composite food → - inorganic mercury; Fish meat is the dominating contributor to methylmercury, followed by fish products Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Mercury content varies widely among different fish species, and is in general higher in predatory fish Health effects: Critical target for toxicity is the kidney Liver, nervous system, immune system, reproductive and developmental systems Methylmercury is able to enter the hair follicle, and to cross the placenta as well as the blood -brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers, allowing accumulation in hair, the foetus and the brain Unborn children constitute the most vulnerable group for developmental effects of methylmercury exposure, and pregnant women can be present in the group of high and frequent fish consumers 74  For teaching purposes only! Consumption of fisheries and aquaculture www.egasmoniz.com/pt products https://nutrimento.pt/noticias/recomendacoes-para-o-consumo-de-pescado/ - Portugal: 56,8 Kg/person/year (2017) Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine World average: 20,4 Kg/person/year (2017) European Market Observatory for Fisheries and Aquaculture Products (EUMOFA). 2019. OECD/FAO. 2019 Kg /person/year Santiago et al., 2019 75  Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine - www.egasmoniz.com/pt Mercury ) (... 76 For teaching purposes only!  For teaching purposes only! polychlorinated biphenyls www.egasmoniz.com/pt Dioxins & PCBs collective term for a group of environmental contaminants that includes certain dioxin, furan, and dioxin-like PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) congeners - Found throughout the world Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine Dioxins are not purposely manufactured → are released into the air from combustion processes; during forest fires and volcanic eruptions PCBs have been used for a variety of purposes, for example as non-combustible liquids in heat exchangers, transformers and electrical capacitors or as softening agents in paints, sealing compounds and plastics → placing PCBs on the market has been prohibited in most countries since the 1980s Accumulate primarily in fatty food of animal origin due to their lipophilic properties Human exposure to dioxins and PCBs mainly through animal-based foods 77  For teaching purposes only! https://unsolvedmysteries.or egonstate.edu/what-dioxin www.egasmoniz.com/pt Dioxins Complex molecules, produced in chemical processes https://www.momscleanairforce.org/resources/dioxins-101/ that take place at high temperatures (650º and 850º C) - and involve chlorine, carbon and oxygen Master’s Degree in Veterinary Medicine More than 210 types of dioxin Main concern: 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin (TCDD) Dioxin crisis - cows grazing in areas close to combustion ovens