2023 - Mike Chapple - CompTIA ITF+ FC0-U61-Wiley (2023).pdf

Chapple897811_c36.indd 312 06-02-2023 13:00:24 Wiley B o ok s in the Cert Mike S erie s CompTIA ITF+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam FC0-U61 by Mike Chapple (ISBN 9781119897811) CompTIA A+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! Core 1 Exam 220-1101 by Mike Chapple and Mark Soper (ISBN 9781119898092) CompTIA A+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! Core 2 Exam 220-1102 by Mike Chapple and Mark Soper (ISBN 9781119898122) CompTIA Network+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam N10-008 by Mike Chapple and Craig Zacker (ISBN 9781119898153) CompTIA® ITF+ CertMike Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! CompTIA® ITF+ CertMike Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam FC0-U61 M ike Chap p l e Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada and the United Kingdom. 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Library of Congress Control Number: 2022935720 Cover design: Wiley To all of my students at Notre Dame. The energy, enthusiasm, and experiences you bring to the classroom make me a better teacher and writer. —Mike A ckn owled gm ents This book marks the start of a new test prep series called CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!, and I’d first like to thank the people who helped shape the vision for this series. The original idea was hatched over breakfast with two very supportive editors from the Wiley team: Ken Brown and Jim Minatel. I’ve worked with both Jim and Ken on many books over many years, and they’re both insightful industry experts who know what it takes to produce a great book. I’d also like to extend a special thank-you to my agent, Carole Jelen of Waterside Pro- ductions. Carole is also an experienced industry pro who can deftly navigate the murky waters of publishing. Carole is the one who pushed me to create my own series. Of course, the creation of any book involves a tremendous amount of effort from many people other than the author. I truly appreciate the work of Adaobi Obi Tulton, the project editor. Adaobi and I have now worked together on many books, and she keeps the train on the tracks! I’d also like to thank Audrey O’Shea, the technical editor, who provided insightful advice and gave wonderful feedback throughout the book, and Archana Pra- gash, production editor, who guided me through layouts, formatting, and final cleanup to produce a great book. I would also like to thank the many behind-the-scenes contrib- utors, including the graphics, production, and technical teams who make the book and companion materials into a finished product. Finally, I would like to thank my family, who supported me through the late evenings, busy weekends, and long hours that a book like this requires to write, edit, and get to press. Ab o ut the Author Mike Chapple, Ph.D., is author of the best-selling CISSP (ISC)2 Certified Information Systems Security Professional Official Study Guide (Sybex, 2021) and the CISSP (ISC)2 Official Practice Tests (Sybex, 2021). He is an information technology professional with two decades of experience in higher education, the private sector, and government. Mike currently serves as Teaching Professor in the IT, Analytics, and Operations department at the University of Notre Dame’s Mendoza College of Business, where he teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on cybersecurity, cloud computing, data management, and business analytics. Before returning to Notre Dame, Mike served as executive vice president and chief information officer of the Brand Institute, a Miami-based marketing consultancy. Mike also spent four years in the information security research group at the National Security Agency and served as an active duty intelligence officer in the U.S. Air Force. Mike has written more than 25 books. He earned both his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Notre Dame in computer science and engineering. Mike also holds an M.S. in com- puter science from the University of Idaho and an MBA from Auburn University. Mike holds the IT Fundamentals (ITF+), Cybersecurity Analyst+ (CySA+), Data+, Security+, Certified Information Security Manager (CISM), Certified Cloud Security Professional (CCSP), and Cer- tified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) certifications. Learn more about Mike and his other security certification materials at his website, CertMike.com. A b out the Technic al E ditor Audrey O’Shea holds CompTIA A+, ITF+, Network+, Security+, Project+, and other industry certifications. The former owner of a computer consulting company, she holds two degrees and a New York State teaching license. Audrey chose to become an edu- cator to share her knowledge with the next wave of IT professionals. She has taught at the college level, in technical schools, and adult seminars with courses ranging from Electrical Theory and Practice for Energy Workers, to Microsoft Office, CompTIA A+, Introduction to Cybersecurity, and CISCO certification. Audrey is a teacher, author, consultant, and entrepreneur, and has helped many students learn what they need to know to pass their certification exams. Audrey has authored two technical books: A Geek Girl’s Guide to Electronics and the Internet of Things (Wiley, 2020) and CompTIA A+ Complete Practice Tests, 3rd Edition (Wiley, 2022). She has also served as technical editor on two other books leading to CompTIA certifications. Audrey lives in upstate New York with her significant other and their fur babies. When she isn’t behind a computer you can find her hiking in the Adirondack Mountains or kay- aking on a lake somewhere. Contents Introduction xv PART I DOMAIN 1.0: IT CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY 1 CHAPTER 1 Notational Systems 3 CHAPTER 2 Data Types 11 CHAPTER 3 Computing Basics 19 CHAPTER 4 Value of Data 25 CHAPTER 5 Units of Measure 33 CHAPTER 6 Troubleshooting Methodology 41 PART II DOMAIN 2.0: INFRASTRUCTURE 49 CHAPTER 7 Input/Output Device Interfaces 51 CHAPTER 8 Installing Peripherals 61 CHAPTER 9 Internal Computing Components 69 CHAPTER 10 Internet Service Types 79 CHAPTER 11 Storage 85 CHAPTER 12 Computing Devices 95 CHAPTER 13 TCP/IP Networking 107 CHAPTER 14 Application Protocols 117 CHAPTER 15 Network Devices 123 CHAPTER 16 Wireless Networks 131 PART III DOMAIN 3.0: APPLICATIONS AND SOFTWARE 143 CHAPTER 17 Operating Systems 145 CHAPTER 18 Virtualization 153 CHAPTER 19 Filesystems 159 CHAPTER 20 Services and Processes 169 xiv Contents CHAPTER 21 Drivers, Utilities, and Interfaces 175 CHAPTER 22 Software Types 183 CHAPTER 23 Application Architecture and Delivery 193 CHAPTER 24 Web Browsers 199 CHAPTER 25 Application Concepts and Uses 211 PART IV DOMAIN 4.0: SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS 217 CHAPTER 26 Programming Languages 219 CHAPTER 27 Programming Organizational Techniques 227 CHAPTER 28 Logic Components 233 CHAPTER 29 Programming Concepts 239 PART V DOMAIN 5.0: DATABASE FUNDAMENTALS 249 CHAPTER 30 Database Concepts 251 CHAPTER 31 Database Structures 259 CHAPTER 32 Database Interfaces 269 PART VI DOMAIN 6.0: SECURITY 277 CHAPTER 33 Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability 279 CHAPTER 34 Securing Devices 287 CHAPTER 35 Behavioral Security 293 CHAPTER 36 Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation 299 CHAPTER 37 Password Best Practices 313 CHAPTER 38 Encryption 319 CHAPTER 39 Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery 325 INDEX 331 Introd u c tion If you’re preparing to take the ITF+ (IT Fundamentals+) exam, you might find yourself overwhelmed with information. This exam covers a very broad range of topics, and it’s pos- sible to spend weeks studying each one of them. Fortunately, that’s not necessary! As part of the CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! series, this book is designed to help you focus on the specific knowledge that you’ll need to pass the ITF+ exam. CompTIA publishes a detailed list of exam objectives, and this book is organized around those objectives. Each chapter clearly states the single objective that it covers and then, in a few pages, covers the material you need to know about that objective. You’ll find two important things at the end of each chapter: CertMike Exam Essentials and Practice Questions. The CertMike Exam Essentials distill the major points from the chapter into just a few bullet points. Reviewing these CertMike Exam Essentials is a great way to prepare yourself right before taking the exam. I’ve also recorded an audio version of the CertMike Exam Essentials that you can access online at www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep after registering and logging on. You can listen to the audio review when you’re in the car, at the gym, or mowing the lawn! Each chapter concludes with two practice questions that are designed to give you a taste of what it’s like to take the exam. You’ll find that they’re written in the same style as the ITF+ exam questions and have very detailed explanations to help you understand the correct answer. Be sure to take your time and thoroughly study these questions. Finally, the book’s online test bank (www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep) includes a full-length practice exam that you can use to assess your knowledge when you’re ready to take the test. Good luck on the ITF+ exam! NOTE Don’t just study the questions and answers! The questions on the actual exam will be different from the practice questions included in this book. The exam is designed to test your knowledge of a concept or objective, so use this book to learn the objectives behind the questions. THE ITF+ EXAM The ITF+ exam is designed to be a vendor-neutral certification for those seeking to enter the information technology field. CompTIA recommends this certification for three types of people: ▶▶ Students considering starting a career in information technology ▶▶ Professionals working in fields that require an understanding of information technology ▶▶ Sales, marketing, and operations professionals in IT-focused companies xvi Introduction The exam covers six major domains of knowledge: 1. IT Concepts and Terminology 2. Infrastructure 3. Applications and Software 4. Software Development Concepts 5. Database Fundamentals 6. Security These six areas include a range of topics, from installing printers to securing networks, while focusing heavily on the basic knowledge expected of all IT professionals. That’s why CompTIA recommends the ITF+ certification for those in any IT-related field. The ITF+ exam uses only standard multiple-choice questions. Unlike other CompTIA exams, you won’t find performance-based questions (PBQs) on the ITF+ exam. This exam is designed to be straightforward and not to trick you. If you know the material in this book, you will pass the exam. The exam costs $130 in the United States, with roughly equivalent prices in other loca- tions around the globe. More details about the ITF+ exam and how to take it can be found at www.comptia.org/certifications/it-fundamentals. You’ll have 50 minutes to take the exam and will be asked to answer up to 75 questions during that time period. Your exam will be scored on a scale ranging from 100 to 900, with a passing score of 650. NOTE CompTIA frequently does what is called item seeding, which is the practice of including unscored questions on exams. It does so to gather psychometric data, which is then used when developing new versions of the exam. Before you take the exam, you will be told that your exam may include these unscored ques- tions. So, if you come across a question that does not appear to map to any of the exam objectives—or for that matter, does not appear to belong in the exam—it is likely a seeded question. You never really know whether or not a question is seeded, however, so always make your best effort to answer every question. Taking the Exam Once you are fully prepared to take the exam, you can visit the CompTIA website to pur- chase your exam voucher: https://store.comptia.org Currently, CompTIA offers two options for taking the exam: an in-person exam at a testing center and an at-home exam that you take on your own computer. TIP This book includes a coupon that you may use to save 10 percent on your CompTIA exam registration. Introduction xvii In-P erson E xams CompTIA partners with Pearson VUE’s testing centers, so your next step will be to locate a testing center near you. In the United States, you can do this based on your address or your ZIP code, while non-U.S. test takers may find it easier to enter their city and country. You can search for a test center near you at the Pearson Vue website, where you will need to navigate to “Find a test center”: www.pearsonvue.com/comptia Now that you know where you’d like to take the exam, simply set up a Pearson VUE test- ing account and schedule an exam on their site. On the day of the test, take two forms of identification, and make sure to show up with plenty of time before the exam starts. Remember that you will not be able to take your notes, electronic devices (including smartphones and watches), or other materials in with you. At-H ome E xams CompTIA began offering online exam proctoring in 2020 in response to the coronavirus pandemic. As of the time this book went to press, the at-home testing option was still available and appears likely to continue. Candidates using this approach will take the exam at their home or office and be proctored over a webcam by a remote proctor. Due to the rapidly changing nature of the at-home testing experience, candidates wish- ing to pursue this option should check the CompTIA website for the latest details. After the ITF+ Exam Once you have taken the exam, you will be notified of your score immediately, so you’ll know if you passed the test right away. You should keep track of your score report with your exam registration records and the email address you used to register for the exam. After you earn the ITF+ certification, you’re certified for life! Unlike many other CompTIA certifications that must be renewed on a periodic basis, the ITF+ certification is permanent and remains with you throughout your career. Many people who earn the ITF+ credential use it as a stepping-stone to earning other cer- tifications in their areas of interest. Those interested in technical support roles pursue the A+ certification, those interested in networking work toward the Network+ credential, and the Security+ certification is a gateway to a career in cybersecurity. WHAT DOES THIS BOOK COVER? This book covers everything you need to know to pass the ITF+ exam. It is organized into six parts, each corresponding to one of the six ITF+ domains. Part I: Domain 1.0: IT Concepts and Terminology Chapter 1: Notational Systems Chapter 2: Data Types xviii Introduction Chapter 3: Computing Basics Chapter 4: Value of Data Chapter 5: Units of Measure Chapter 6: Troubleshooting Part II: Domain 2.0: Infrastructure Chapter 7: Input/Output Device Interfaces Chapter 8: Installing Peripherals Chapter 9: Internal Computing Components Chapter 10: Internet Service Types Chapter 11: Storage Chapter 12: Computing Devices Chapter 13: TCP/IP Networking Chapter 14: Application Protocols Chapter 15: Network Devices Chapter 16: Wireless Networks Part III: Domain 3.0: Applications and Software Chapter 17: Operating Systems Chapter 18: Virtualization Chapter 19: Filesystems Chapter 20: Services and Processes Chapter 21: Drivers, Utilities, and Interfaces Chapter 22: Software Types Chapter 23: Application Architecture and Delivery Chapter 24: Web Browsers Chapter 25: Application Concepts and Uses Part IV: Domain 4.0: Software Development Concepts Chapter 26: Programming Languages Chapter 27: Programming Organizational Techniques Chapter 28: Logic Components Chapter 29: Programming Concepts Introduction xix Part V: Domain 5.0: Database Fundamentals Chapter 30: Database Concepts Chapter 31: Database Structures Chapter 32: Database Interfaces Part VI: Domain 6.0: Security Chapter 33: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability Chapter 34: Securing Devices Chapter 35: Behavioral Security Chapter 36: Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation Chapter 37: Password Best Practices Chapter 38: Encryption Chapter 39: Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Cer tMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! Series Elements Each book in the CertMike Get Certified series uses a number of common elements to help you prepare. These include the following: Exam Tips Throughout each chapter, I’ve sprinkled practical exam tips that help focus your reading on topics that are particularly confusing or important to understand for the exam. CertMike Exam Essentials The exam essentials focus on major exam topics and critical knowledge that you should take into the test. The exam essentials focus on the exam objectives provided by CompTIA. Practice Questions Two questions at the end of each chapter help you assess your knowledge and if you are ready to take the exam based on your knowledge of that chapter’s topics. Practice Exam and Audio Review This book comes with online study tools: a practice exam and audio review to help you prepare for the exam. NOTE Go to www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep to register and gain access to the online study tools. xx Introduction Practice E xam The book includes a practice exam. You can test your knowledge of the ITF+ objectives that are covered in the chapters in their entirety or randomized. It’s your choice! Audio Review I’ve recorded an audio review where I read each of the 39 sets of CertMike Exam Essentials. This review provides a helpful recap of the main topics covered on the exam, which you can listen to while you’re commuting, working out, or relaxing. NOTE Like all exams, the ITF+ certification from CompTIA is updated periodically and may eventually be retired or replaced. At some point after CompTIA is no longer offering this exam, the old editions of our books and online tools will be retired. If you have purchased this book after the exam was retired, or are attempting to register in the Sybex online learning environment after the exam was retired, please know that we make no guarantees that this exam’s online Sybex tools will be available once the exam is no longer available. EXAM FC0-U61 EXAM OBJECTIVES CompTIA goes to great lengths to ensure that its certification programs accurately reflect the IT industry’s best practices. They do this by establishing committees for each of its exam programs. Each committee consists of a small group of IT professionals, training providers, and publishers who are responsible for establishing the exam’s baseline compe- tency level and who determine the appropriate target-audience level. Once these factors are determined, CompTIA shares this information with a group of hand-selected subject matter experts (SMEs). These folks are the true brainpower behind the certification program. The SMEs review the committee’s findings, refine them, and shape them into the objectives that follow this section. CompTIA calls this process a job-task anal- ysis (JTA). Finally, CompTIA conducts a survey to ensure that the objectives and weightings truly reflect job requirements. Only then can the SMEs go to work writing the hundreds of ques- tions needed for the exam. Even so, they have to go back to the drawing board for further refinements in many cases before the exam is ready to go live in its final state. Rest assured that the content you’re about to learn will serve you long after you take the exam. CompTIA also publishes relative weightings for each of the exam’s objectives. The follow- ing table lists the six ITF+ objective domains and the extent to which they are represented on the exam. Introduction xxi Domain % of Exam 1.0 IT Concepts and Terminology 17% 2.0 Infrastructure 22% 3.0 Applications and Software 18% 4.0 Software Development Concepts 12% 5.0 Database Fundamentals 11% 6.0 Security 20% FC0-U61 CERTIFICATION EXAM OBJECTIVE MAP Objective Chapter 1.0 IT Concepts and Terminology 1.1 Compare and contrast notational systems 1 1.2 Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their 2 characteristics 1.3 Illustrate the basics of computing and processing 3 1.4 Explain the value of data and information 4 1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure 5 1.6 Explain the troubleshooting methodology 6 2.0 Infrastructure 2.1 Classify common types of input/output device interfaces 7 2.2 Given a scenario, set up and install common peripheral devices to 8 a laptop/PC xxii Introduction Objective Chapter 2.3 Explain the purpose of common internal computing components 9 2.4 Compare and contrast common Internet service types 10 2.5 Compare and contrast storage types 11 2.6 Compare and contrast common computing devices and their 12 purposes 2.7 Explain basic networking concepts 13, 14, 15 2.8 Given a scenario, install, configure, and secure a basic wireless 16 network 3.0 Applications and Software 3.1 Explain the purpose of operating systems 17, 18 3.2 Compare and contrast components of an operating system 19, 20, 21 3.3 Explain the purpose and proper use of software 22 3.4 Explain methods of application architecture and delivery models 23 3.5 Given a scenario, configure and use web browsers 24 3.6 Compare and contrast general application concepts and uses 25 4.0 Software Development Concepts 4.1 Compare and contrast programming language categories 26 4.2 Given a scenario, use programming organizational techniques 27, 28 and interpret logic 4.3 Explain the purpose and use of programming concepts 29 5.0 Database Fundamentals 5.1 Explain database concepts and the purpose of a database 30 5.2 Compare and contrast various database structures 31 Introduction xxiii Objective Chapter 5.3 Summarize methods used to interface with databases 32 6.0 Security 6.1 Summarize confidentiality, integrity, and availability concerns 33 6.2 Explain methods to secure devices and best practices 34 6.3 Summarize behavioral security concepts 35 6.4 Compare and contrast authentication, authorization, accounting, 36 and nonrepudiation concepts 6.5 Explain password best practices 37 6.6 Explain common uses of encryption 38 6.7 Explain business continuity concepts 39 NOTE Exam objectives are subject to change at any time without prior notice and at CompTIA’s discretion. Please visit CompTIA’s website (www.comptia.org) for the most current listing of exam objectives. HOW TO CONTACT THE PUBLISHER If you believe you’ve found a mistake in this book, please bring it to our attention. At John Wiley & Sons, we understand how important it is to provide our customers with accurate content, but even with our best efforts an error may occur. In order to submit your possible errata, please email it to our Customer Service Team at [email protected] with the subject line “Possible Book Errata Submission.” PART I Domain 1.0: IT Concepts and Terminology Chapter 1 Notational Systems Chapter 2 Data Types Chapter 3 Computing Basics Chapter 4 Value of Data Chapter 5 Units of Measure Chapter 6 Troubleshooting Methodology IT Concepts and Terminology is the first domain of CompTIA’s ITF+ exam. It provides the foundational knowledge that anyone in information technology needs to under- stand as they begin their careers. This domain has six objectives: 1.1 Compare and contrast notational systems 1.2 Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their characteristics 1.3 Illustrate the basics of computing and processing 1.4 Explain the value of data and information 1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure 1.6 Explain the troubleshooting methodology Questions from this domain make up 17% of the questions on the ITF+ exam, so you should expect to see approximately 13 questions on your test covering the material in this part. CHAPTER 1 Notational Systems Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast notational systems Computers are designed to store and manipulate data in binary form, but that format isn’t often convenient or appropriate for humans or software applications. Notational systems provide us with ways to use binary data storage technologies to represent numbers, text, and other data formats. In this chapter, you’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.1, including the following topics: ▶▶ Binary ▶▶ Hexadecimal ▶▶ Decimal ▶▶ Data representation STORING DATA As we dive into the world of information technology, it’s important to understand how computers store and work with data. Let’s begin that discussion by talking about the basic units of storage in a computer system. Binar y Data You’ve probably heard that computers work with binary data, or data that is stored as simply 0s and 1s. Everything that happens inside a computer system uses Chapple897811_c01.indd 3 06-02-2023 10:46:46 4 Chapter 1 Notational Systems combinations of 0s and 1s. From the operating system and software that we run to our Microsoft Word documents or even a video file, everything is encoded in binary format. The reason for this is that computers can easily use this binary format to store data on disk, keep it in memory, or send it over a network. The basic unit of binary storage in any computer system is the bit. A bit is a single binary digit that can be either 1 or 0. Those are the only two possible values for a bit. You can’t put the number 2 or the letter Z in a bit. It can only be a 1 or a 0, as shown in Figure 1.1. F I G U R E 1. 1 A single bit can only hold two values: 0 and 1. When we store data on a magnetic hard drive, the computer divides the drive up into billions of tiny little spaces, each designed to store a single bit. If the value of the bit is 1, the computer places a magnetic charge in the location used by that bit. If the value of the bit is 0, the computer leaves no magnetic charge in that location. When data is stored on a solid-state drive (SSD) or in memory, the process works the same way but using electricity instead of magnetism. If the value of a bit in memory is 1, a small electrical charge changes the value in that memory location to the “on” position. If the value of the bit is 0, the value in that position is set to the “off” position. Now, computers may think in 0s and 1s, but that’s not the way that we human beings think. We’d much prefer to think of our data in terms of letters and numbers! Computers store the data that we’re more familiar with by combining multiple bits together. If we have 2 bits of data, we can use them together to represent four different values, as shown in Figure 1.2. F I G U R E 1. 2 Two bits can hold four possible values. We could use the 2-bit values in Figure 1.2 to store whole numbers between 0 and 3. We simply assign each of the 2-bit binary possibilities a whole-number equivalent. Table 1.1 shows the standard conversion for these 2-bit values. Chapple897811_c01.indd 4 06-02-2023 10:46:46 Storing Data 5 T A B L E 1. 1 Decimal conversion of 2-bit values Binary Value Decimal Value 00 0 01 1 10 2 11 3 If we have 3 bits of data, we can use them to store eight possible values: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111. These convert to decimal values ranging from 0 to 7, as shown in Table 1.2. T A B L E 1. 2 Decimal conversion of 3-bit values Binary Value Decimal Value 000 0 001 1 010 2 011 3 100 4 101 5 110 6 111 7 Similarly, if we have 4 bits of data, we can store 16 possible values, and as we increase the number of bits, we increase the number of values. Once we get up to 8 bits, we find our- selves able to store 256 possible values, ranging from 0 to 255. That’s an important number because we can store all of the possible characters and digits used by a computer system in this range. This combination of 8 bits is known as a byte, and the byte is the second important unit of binary data storage. When you’re thinking about text data, you can think of each character as being a single byte, made up of 8 bits. Chapple897811_c01.indd 5 06-02-2023 10:46:46 6 Chapter 1 Notational Systems Decimal Data Whether or not you know it, you’re already familiar with decimal notation. This is the numbering system that we use in our everyday lives, and it’s based off multiples of the number 10. In a decimal number, each digit can take on 10 possible values, ranging from 0 to 9, as shown in Figure 1.3. F I G U R E 1. 3 One decimal digit can hold 10 possible values. When we grow to two decimal digits, we can represent one hundred values, ranging from 0 to 99. Adding a third digit allows us to store numbers between 0 and 999. Every time that we add another digit, we increase the number of values we can store by 10. Hexadecimal Data Unless you’ve worked with computer memory before, you’re probably not familiar with hexadecimal notation. In this notation, each value can store 16 possible values, ranging from 0 to 15. Now you’re probably wondering how we can put a two-digit number like 10 or 15 into a single location. That’s a good question! We do this by using the values 0 through 9 to represent the numbers 0 through 9 but then using the values A through F to represent 10 through 15. Figure 1.4 shows the 16 pos- sible values that may be stored in a single hexadecimal digit. F I G U R E 1. 4 A single hexadecimal digit can hold 16 possible values. Table 1.3 provides some examples of the same numbers expressed in decimal, binary, and hexadecimal forms. Chapple897811_c01.indd 6 06-02-2023 10:46:47 Character Encoding 7 T A B L E 1. 3 Binary, decimal, and hexadecimal equivalent values Decimal Value Binary Value Hexadecimal Value 0 0 0 5 101 5 10 1010 A 123 1111011 7B The math here gets a little complicated, but the good thing is that you won’t be asked to convert these values on the exam. What you want to understand is that if you see a value consisting of 0s and 1s, that’s binary. If you see values made up of the digits 0 through 9, that’s decimal. And if you see the letters A through F mixed in with those digits, that’s hexadecimal. EXAM TIP Expect to see exam questions that ask you to identify the best notational system or data representation for a given situation. If the question mentions anything about non-English characters, you’ll probably want to use a Unicode data repre- sentation. If the question asks about values that can be encoded as 0 or 1, true or false, off or on, yes or no, or similar two-value options, that’s a key indicator that binary data storage is appropriate. CHARACTER ENCODING We’ve discussed three notation systems: binary, decimal, and hexadecimal. Those are the different ways that we can represent numbers. But we often want to store and process text values instead of numbers when we’re working with data. The way that we do this is to encode text characters as numbers. You may remember when we first discussed binary data, I mentioned that computers typically work in units of bytes and that each byte consists of 8 bits. Bytes can store dec- imal numbers from 0 to 255, and we use 1 byte to store one character of text. We do this by using standard codes to describe how we encode each character as a number. When we’re using English or another language that uses our alphabet, we use a code called the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, or ASCII. This code describes what numeric value to use for each of the uppercase and lowercase letters, digits, punctuation, and other symbols commonly used in the English language. ASCII was originally designed as a 7-bit code, but modern computers use an extended version of ASCII that uses 8-bit bytes. Chapple897811_c01.indd 7 06-02-2023 10:46:47 8 Chapter 1 Notational Systems If you’re working in languages other than English, you need to have more characters avail- able to you. This requires the use of a different code. Unicode is a large character set capable of representing thousands of different characters using 8 or 16 bits of data. CERTMIKE EXAM ESSENTIALS ▶▶ Binary data is the native format used by computer systems and is used to store values that can be represented as either 0 or 1. Decimal values are the base- 10 numbers that we use in our everyday lives that use digits between 0 and 9. Hexadecimal values extend the number of possible values in a single digit to 16 by adding the values A–F as possibilities. ▶▶ ASCII data representations are used to store the characters of standard English text in binary form. Unicode data representations can store English characters as well as characters used in other languages. Chapple897811_c01.indd 8 06-02-2023 10:46:47 Practice Questions 9 Practice Question 1 A developer is working on a new software program that will store data in memory about many differ- ent characteristics of customers of a bank. Each of these characteristics is best represented as a “yes” or “no” value. What notational system would best store this type of data? A. Hexadecimal B. Decimal C. ASCII D. Binary Practice Question 2 Your company recently entered into a partnership with an organization based in Egypt and you are helping an executive receive documents that must be translated from Arabic into English. The docu- ments contain Arabic characters, but those characters are not rendering properly on the screen. What representational system is best used for this type of document? A. ASCII B. Binary C. Unicode D. Hexadecimal 10 Chapter 1 Notational Systems Practice Question 1 Explanation This question is asking us to identify the notational system that would best meet the described need. This is a very common format for CompTIA exam questions, and you should be prepared to evaluate all of the possible answer choices and find the one that is better than all the others. Let’s evaluate these choices one at a time: 1. First, we have the possibility of using hexadecimal values. It would indeed be possible to store “yes” and “no” as hexadecimal values by using the hexadecimal value of 0 to represent “no” and 1 to represent “yes.” However, this is wasteful because a single hexadecimal digit can be used to store up to 15 possible values and we only need the ability to store two possible values. So this isn’t a great option. 2. Next, we are presented with the choice of storing the values in decimal form. As with hexadec- imal, we could encode “no” as the decimal value 0 and “yes” as the decimal value 1, but that would be wasteful, so it is not the best option. 3. We could use ASCII to store the text strings “yes” and “no” as well, but this requires us to use 3 bytes of storage to store a three-letter word. Again, this is a possibility, but it is not the best option. 4. The last option, binary, is the best one here. We can encode “yes” as the binary value 1 and “no” as the binary value 0 and use our data storage efficiently. Correct Answer: D. Binary Practice Question 2 Explanation In this question, you’re being asked to identify the best representational system to use when storing text data in a file. That allows us to narrow down our answer choices quickly. ASCII and Unicode are representational systems for text, whereas binary and hexadecimal are notational systems for storing data. We can, therefore, quickly eliminate binary and hexadecimal as answer choices. When you take the ITF+ exam, watch for opportunities like this where you can immediately eliminate answer choices that are obviously wrong. This can help you focus your attention quickly and increase the odds that you will pick the correct answer. Next, we must decide among the two remaining answers. ASCII only allows the storage of English characters, so it won’t work very well in this scenario. We can, however, store the Arabic characters using a Unicode data representation, making Unicode our best option. Remember, the use of non-English characters is a key indicator that Unicode is an appropriate choice! Correct Answer: C. Unicode CHAPTER 2 Data Types Objective 1.2: Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their characteristics While computers are designed to directly work with binary code, operating systems and applications are written with human users in mind. In the previous chapter, you learned how binary bits can be used to repre- sent different decimal, hexadecimal, and text values. In this chapter, you’ll discover the different types of data objects that you can use when creating software to run on a computer. You’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.2, including the following topics: ▶▶ Char ▶▶ Strings ▶▶ Numbers ▶▶ Boolean DATA TYPES Each data object used by an application has an associated data type that tells the computer how to handle the data that it encounters. This is how we tell the difference between numeric values, character strings, and other types of data that we might have stored in memory or on disk. 12 C h a p t e r 2 D a t a Ty p e s EXAM TIP Expect to see exam questions that ask you to identify the best data type to use in a given situation. When you face a question like this, you should first determine whether the data is numeric, text, or binary. If the data is numeric and a whole number, then choose integer values. If the data is numeric with a decimal, then choose floating-point values. If the data is text, choose char if it will be a single character or string if it will be more than one character. If the data requires only a single binary bit, such as a yes/no, on/off, or true/false value, use a Boolean data type. Boolean Data The most basic data type is the Boolean object. A Boolean data element consists of only a single bit, so it can only have two possible values—0 and 1. That might sound pretty lim- iting, but Boolean data types are widely used in computer systems to represent values that are either true or false. The value 0 represents false and the value 1 represents true. When we’re designing software, we often refer to these Boolean values as flags and use them for a wide variety of purposes. For example, if I’m storing data about products that I maintain in my store’s inventory, I could have a flag called Taxable that represents whether sales tax should be charged when the product is sold or whether it is exempt from tax. Products that are taxable would have a 1 in the taxable field, making the taxable value TRUE, whereas products that are not taxable would have a 0, making the taxable value FALSE. Numeric Data We also commonly store numeric values in memory. They come in two basic forms: integers and floating-point numbers. Integers Integers are values that do not have decimal or fractional values. They are whole numbers, such as 1, 2, and 3. They may also take on negative values, such as –123. Floats Floating-point numbers, or floats, are numbers that do have decimal places associated with them. The precision of a floating-point number indicates how many decimal places may be used with that number. The more precision we use, the more memory a floating-point number consumes. Examples of floating-point numbers include 1.2, 3.642, and 150.0. Note that it is possible to store numbers with no decimal content in a floating-point value, such as 150.0. However, it is more efficient to store this type of data in an integer, and software will treat floats and integers differently when performing some types of calculation. Ty i n g I t AD l laTo t a gTy e tpheesr 13 Text Data Finally, we often store text values in memory and on disk. A single character of text uses the char data type and, in the ASCII encoding system, consumes a single byte of memory. Character strings consist of one or more characters strung together, such as in a word, sen- tence, or paragraph, and they consume 1 byte per character. WARNING ITF+ candidates often become confused about the appropriate data type to use for ZIP codes (the postal codes used in the United States). ZIP codes are 5-or 9-digit values that consist entirely of numbers. However, they should always be stored as character strings and not numeric values. The reason for this is that they are not used in computation, and because some ZIP codes start with the digit 0, numeric data types would truncate this digit, making the ZIP code invalid. For example, 07717 is the ZIP code for Avon-by-the-S ea, New Jersey. If this ZIP code were stored in an integer field, it would be truncated to 7717, which is not a valid ZIP code. Tying It All Together You should be prepared to answer questions where you are provided with a scenario and are asked to choose the best data type for that situation. Figure 2.1 shows a flowchart that you can use to make these decisions. Table 2.1 provides an example of the types of information that a store might maintain about the products that it sells. Review this table and each of the data elements. What data type do you think should be used for each one? T A B L E 2. 1 Product information Product Name Price Quantity Taxable Discounted Bicycle 899.49 47 Yes TRUE Helmet 49.99 13 Yes FALSE Handlebars 62.99 85 No FALSE Seat 104.99 19 No TRUE 14 C h a p t e r 2 D a t a Ty p e s Start Can the data be stored using YES Boolean a single bit? NO Does the data use Is the data numeric? YES decimal Yes Float values? No No Integer Is the text a single Is the data text? Yes Yes Char character? No No None of these types are String appropriate F I G U R E 2. 1 Data type flowchart Ty i n g I t AD l laTo t a gTy e tpheesr 15 As you look through this table, consider each of the columns: ▶▶ Product Name is text data. The field contains words, which are multiple char- acters strung together, so it should be stored using a string data type. ▶▶ Price is monetary data. It contains numeric data that includes decimal values, so it should be stored using a floating-point data type. ▶▶ Quantity is also numeric data, but it contains only whole numbers, so it should be stored as an integer data type. ▶▶ Taxable is a Yes/No field, so it may be stored using a single binary bit, where 1 represents Yes and 0 represents No. Therefore, it should be stored as a Boolean value. ▶▶ Discounted is a TRUE/FALSE field and it may be treated the same way, encod- ing the value TRUE as 1 and the value FALSE as 0. It should also be stored as a Boolean value. CERTMIKE EXAM ESSENTIALS ▶▶ Data that will be used in computations should be in numeric form. Numeric data may be either whole numbers, stored as integers, or decimal numbers, stored as floating-point values. ▶▶ Text data may be stored in character data types if it will be a single character or in character strings if the text will be multiple characters joined together, such as a word, sentence, or paragraph. ▶▶ Data elements that can be represented as a single binary digit (bit) should use the Boolean data type to conserve storage and memory. 16 C h a p t e r 2 D a t a Ty p e s Practice Question 1 You are creating a new software program for your organization that will track the number of times a customer visits your store. The program will contain a variable called visits that will maintain the tally. What data type would be best suited for the visits variable? A. Boolean B. String C. Integer D. Float Practice Question 2 You are working with a software developer who is creating a database that will track information about the guests who stay at a hotel. One of the variables that you wish to track is whether each guest is a member of the hotel loyalty program. You will track this in a variable called loyalty. What data type would be best suited for the loyalty variable? A. Boolean B. String C. Integer D. Float TyPi nr ag c Itti cAel lQTo u egset ti oh ne sr 17 Practice Question 1 Explanation In this question, we’re asked to choose the most appropriate data type for a given situation. We can approach this using the flowchart method discussed in this chapter. Let’s walk through that flow- chart together. First, we’re asked if we can store the data in a single binary bit. This would allow us only two possible values, such as 0/1, true/false, or yes/no. The number of times a customer visits a store may take on many possible values, so we cannot store it in a bit and a Boolean data type is not appropriate. Next, we’re asked if the data is numeric. The number of times that a customer visits a store is numeric data, so we then ask the follow-up question of whether it uses decimal values. It wouldn’t make sense for the number of customer visits to be a decimal number (what would 1.5 visits mean?), so a float is not appropriate. We then decide to use an integer value as the most appropriate data type. The only other possible answer choice here is a string value, which is not appropriate because this data is numeric and we would very likely want to perform calculations on it, such as tallying the average number of visits per customer or the total number of visits per month. Correct Answer: C. Integer Practice Question 2 Explanation This question also calls for the use of the flowchart shown in Figure 2.1. We begin the flowchart by asking the question: “Can this data be stored using a single bit?” The variable will store data about whether a customer is a member of the loyalty program. There are only two possible answers to this question: yes and no. Therefore, it is possible to store this data in a single bit, so a Boolean data type would be the best choice. You could also use any of the other data types listed to store this data. You could use character strings to store the words “yes” and “no.” You could also use integers or floating-point numbers to store 0 and 1 values. However, these are not the best choices because those data types will use more storage than a single Boolean bit with no added value. That’s why the flowchart directs us to use Boolean values whenever we can store data using only a single bit. Correct Answer: A. Boolean CHAPTER 3 Computing Basics Objective 1.3: Illustrate the basics of computing and processing Computers perform four basic operations on data : they accept input from users and devices, process data by performing calculations and other operations, store data obtained from input and processing, and provide output of their results. In this chapter, you’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.3, including the following topics: ▶▶ Input ▶▶ Processing ▶▶ Output ▶▶ Storage COMPUTER ACTIONS Any computing device performs four basic operations: obtaining input, storing data, processing data, and providing output. This is true whether you’re dealing with a laptop or desktop computer, a server, a smartphone, a tablet, or another specialized computing device. Input Input is when we provide information to the device to help us do our work. Input often comes from users, and we provide that input in a variety of ways. If we’re using a laptop 20 Chapter 3 Computing Basics or desktop computer, we might provide input by typing on the keyboard or moving and clicking the mouse. On a tablet or smartphone, we’re used to interacting by tapping or swiping on the screen or by using our voices. Input doesn’t have to come directly from a person. Computers can also receive input from other computers, from stored data, or even from sensors. For example, the thermostat in your home is a computer. It receives input from a built-in thermometer that tells it the current temperature in your home. It also receives input from residents when they change the temperature setting on the thermostat screen. Storage When a computer receives input, it can do two different things with that input: it can store the data directly or it might perform some processing on that data (discussed in the next section) and then store it. Storage mechanisms allow computers to maintain data that they will need later. Com- puters can store data in two different ways. They might keep some data stored in memory, where the computer can quickly access it on a temporary basis, or they might write the data to a hard drive, cloud storage service, or other storage location where it may be kept more permanently. Processing Processing is when the computer analyzes data and performs operations on it. For example, if the computer calculates the total amount of a customer order by adding together the prices of individual products and computing taxes and discounts, that’s an example of processing. Computers can also process data in other ways. When a computer manipulates an image file, plays a video file stored on disk, or predicts the weather, all of those actions are exam- ples of processing. In most computer systems, processing is done by a special chip inside the computer called the central processing unit (CPU). We’ll cover CPUs and other ways of processing data in Chapter 9, “Internal Computing Components.” Output For a computer to be useful to us, it needs some way to provide us with output. Output is simply the computer reporting back to us on the results of its processing. Output can come in many forms. The simplest form of output is simply showing the results of processing data on the screen, where we can read it. We can also use a printer to create a paper record of output. Output can also come in other forms. Instead of providing us with the output of its calculations for us to read, a computer might use output to provide instructions to another device on how it should perform. Computer Actions 21 Exam Tip You should be prepared to answer exam questions asking you to read the description of an action and classify it as one of the four basic computing actions. Know the differences between input, storage, processing, and output. Tying It All Together Let’s tie that all together by returning to the thermostat example from earlier. Input A thermostat is a computer that receives input from two different sources. You might provide input to the thermostat by telling it the temperature you’d like to have in your home. You might set your thermostat to 74 degrees Fahrenheit. The thermostat also receives input from its built-in thermometer, telling it the actual temperature in your home, which might be 77 degrees on a warm day. Processing The thermostat then performs some processing on that input. Basically, it asks the question, is the current temperature lower than the desired temperature, equal to the desired temperature, or above the desired temperature? Storage The thermostat might store the current temperature in memory so that it can later show you data on the temperature in your house over time. Output The thermostat provides some output in the form of instructions to other devices. If the current temperature is lower than your desired temperature, that means that your house is too cool and the thermostat tells the furnace to turn on and generate heat. If it’s too warm in the house, the thermostat turns on the air conditioning to cool down the temperature. These four actions—input, processing, storage, and output—are the basic activities car- ried out by any computing system. For example, think about the computer that you use most often. It likely has the following: ▶▶ Input devices, including a keyboard, mouse/trackpad, microphone, and video camera ▶▶ Processing capability in its CPU 22 Chapter 3 Computing Basics ▶▶ Storage capacity in memory and a hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state drive (SSD) ▶▶ An output device, such as a display or printer CERTMIKE EXAM ESSENTIALS ▶▶ Computers receive input from a variety of sources, including directly from users and from other devices. ▶▶ After receiving input, computers may perform processing on that input to perform computation or decision making. They may then store the original data and/or processed data in memory or on disk. ▶▶ Computers provide output in the form of data displayed to end users on monitors or printers as well as in the form of commands sent to other devices. Practice Questions 23 Practice Question 1 You are assisting a manager who is trying to print a PDF report saved on their laptop for distribution to their employees at a staff meeting in a few hours. The manager is frustrated because the printer keeps jamming, preventing them from printing the report. What basic computing action is causing this problem? A. Input B. Processing C. Output D. Storage Practice Question 2 You are working with a front desk technician at a hotel and troubleshooting an issue that guests are having with the hotel’s check-in kiosks. The kiosks use a touchscreen to interact with guests. The touchscreens are correctly displaying information, but when users tap buttons on the screen, the device does not respond. What basic computing action is causing this problem? A. Input B. Processing C. Output D. Storage 24 Chapter 3 Computing Basics Practice Question 1 Explanation This question asks us to evaluate the situation and decide whether it involves input, processing, storage, or output. Let’s walk through each of the possibilities. Input is when a user or system provides data to a computer. In this case, we don’t need to gather any new data. The information the manager wants is already present in a PDF report. Processing is when the computer performs computation or analysis on data. Again, we already have a PDF report that would contain the results of that analysis, so processing seems to be working fine. Storage is when the computer saves data for later use. Once again, the report is already generated and saved on the device, so there is no storage issue. The core issue here is that the printer is not creating the report. That’s an output issue because the printer is an output device. The manager can’t generate the report to provide to their team. Correct Answer: C. Output Practice Question 2 Explanation This question also calls for the classification of this activity into one of the categories of input, processing, output, and storage. Once again, let’s walk through each of the categories. The use of a touchscreen makes this a very interesting question because touchscreens are both input and output devices. They accept input from users in the form of touches, and they provide output on the screen. With this knowledge that touchscreens perform input and output, we can quickly elimi- nate processing and storage as possible answers. We don’t seem to have an output problem here because the touchscreens are correctly display- ing information. We do have an input problem because the devices are not responding when users attempt to input information by tapping buttons on the screen. Correct Answer: A. Input CHAPTER 4 Value of Data Objective 1.4: Explain the value of data and information In today’s economy, information is often one of a business’s most valuable assets. From product plans to customer records, every business has sensitive information and protecting that information is a crucial business concern. If that information falls into the wrong hands, it could damage the organization’s reputation, injure its customers, or cause financial losses. In this chapter, you’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.4, including the following topics: ▶▶ Data and information as assets ▶▶ Importance of investing in security ▶▶ Relationship of data to creating information ▶▶ Intellectual property ▶▶ Digital products ▶▶ Data-driven business decisions DATA AND INFORMATION As an IT professional, you’re responsible for protecting the information that your orga- nization values. The first key step to that is recognizing that data and information are indeed assets that have value to your business, just like your vehicles, buildings, and other equipment. Chapple897811_c04.indd 25 06-02-2023 11:03:46 26 Cha p ter 4 Va l u e o f D a t a Data Let’s talk a bit about the difference between data and information. Data is the raw facts that our systems and processes generate and collect on a regular basis. You can think of data as just bits of knowledge. For example, we might put a thermometer in our factory to monitor a piece of sensitive equipment. That thermometer might record a temperature reading every 10 minutes to determine the temperature inside the equipment. The end result would be a spreadsheet or database table containing all of the tempera- ture recordings over time, such as the one shown in Figure 4.1. Each of these temperature readings is one fact and all of this is data. We have a spreadsheet providing data about our temperature readings. F I G U R E 4. 1 A spreadsheet of temperature readings is only data. Information Information is data that has been processed and analyzed. A system or person has put some effort into putting that data in the context of the business so that it is useful to us. The spreadsheet of temperature information in Figure 4.1 is all correct, but it isn’t very useful to us. It’s just a collection of data that isn’t in any context. Figure 4.2 shows what happens if we create a plot showing how the temperature of this equipment changes over time. Now we start to have some information. Chapple897811_c04.indd 26 06-02-2023 11:03:47 Data and Information 27 F I G U R E 4. 2 Plotting data over time is one way we can transform it into information. Data-D riven Business Decisions Looking at Figure 4.2 we can quickly see that the temperature in this machinery spikes to dangerously high levels every afternoon around 2 p.m., as shown in Figure 4.3. That’s information that we can act upon. We can tell the people responsible for this equipment that they need to figure out what is going on every afternoon that’s causing this potentially dangerous situation. That story is an example of a data-driven business decision. When we have the right information at our disposal, we can act upon it to improve our business. There are a few stages to this process: 1. We first capture and collect data that might have meaning to our business. Whether that’s temperature data like our previous example, or data about our customers, products, or the operating environment, there are many different kinds of data that might be valuable to us. 2. Once we have that data, we can correlate it, performing analysis to help find the meaningful information that it contains. 3. With that information in hand, we can provide reports to business leaders, helping them make data-driven business decisions. Chapple897811_c04.indd 27 06-02-2023 11:03:47 28 Cha p ter 4 Va l u e o f D a t a F I G U R E 4. 3 Information can drive action. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY The information assets that an organization uses to create business value are a type of property that belongs to that business, just as real estate and physical items are examples of property. We use the term intellectual property to describe the information assets that belong to an organization. The law provides businesses with three different ways that they can protect their intellec- tual property against theft or misuse: copyrights, trademarks, and patents. Each one of these legal tools provides different types of protection for different types of intellectual property. Copyrights Copyrights protect creative works against theft. Information protected by copyright includes books, web content, magazines, and other written works as well as art, music, and even computer software. Many organizations now spend much of their time creating digital products. Digital content may also be protected by a copyright. Copyright protection is automatically granted to the creator of a work upon creation. Although copyright owners may choose to register their copyright with governmental authorities, this is not a legal requirement. In the United States, the Library of Congress administers the copyright program through the U.S. Copyright Office. Chapple897811_c04.indd 28 06-02-2023 11:03:47 Intellectual Property 29 The length of copyright protection varies widely according to the country of registration, the type of work, and whether the author is an individual or a corporation. In all cases, it is a very long time. For example, if you create a new work today, the copyright protection for that work lasts for 70 years beyond your death. Once a copyright expires, work moves into the public domain and may be used freely by anyone without requiring licensing or permission. Copyrights are denoted using the symbol shown in Figure 4.4. F I G U R E 4. 4 Copyright symbol Trademarks Trademarks are used to protect the words and symbols used to identify products and ser- vices. Information protected by trademark includes brand names, logos, and slogans. Owners of trademarks must register their marks with the government to achieve full pro- tection. In the United States, this is handled through the United States Patent and Trademark Office, a division of the U.S. Department of Commerce. Trademarks may last indefinitely, but their registration must be renewed every 10 years. Trademarks are only valid as long as they are being actively used. If an organization stops using a trademark in commerce, they are said to have abandoned the trademark after five years of non-use. Trademarks are denoted using the superscript ™ symbol shown in Figure 4.5(a). Once they are granted registration status by the government, they may be denoted using the symbol shown in Figure 4.5(b). (a) (b) F I G U R E 4. 5 Symbols used to denote (a) trademarks and (b) registered trademarks. Patents Patents protect inventions, providing the inventor with the exclusive use of their invention for a period of time. The purpose of patents is to stimulate invention by assuring inventors that others will not simply copy their ideas in the marketplace. Chapple897811_c04.indd 29 06-02-2023 11:03:48 30 Cha p ter 4 Va l u e o f D a t a In order to be granted a patent, an inventor must demonstrate that their idea meets three criteria: ▶▶ It must be novel, meaning that it is a new idea that nobody has thought of in the past. ▶▶ It must be useful, meaning that it provides some benefit to someone and that it is actually possible to use the invention. ▶▶ It must be non-obvious, meaning that there was some inventive work involved. Once granted, a patent generally lasts for 20 years beyond the filing date, but this may be extended if there are governmental delays in issuing the patent. EXAM TIP Expect to see at least one question on your exam asking you to decide what type of intellectual property protection would be best in a given situation: trademark, copyright, or patent. The exam objectives cover these protections directly, and those scenarios make for easy exam questions! SECURING DATA Information technology professionals are responsible for securing data of many different kinds. This includes the intellectual property that belongs to the organization as well as other sensitive information, such as the personal information of the company’s customers and employees. You’ll learn much more about securing data in Part VI of this book, as security is an entire domain of the ITF+ exam. CERTMIKE EXAM ESSENTIALS ▶▶ Data consists of raw facts that may be transformed into information. Together, data and information are among a business’s most valuable assets. ▶▶ Businesses may use data to make data-driven business decisions. To do this, they must first capture/collect data, then correlate that data with other sources, and finally provide reporting to decision makers. ▶▶ Organizations may protect their intellectual property through several mechanisms. Copyrights protect written works. Trademarks protect the words and symbols used to identify products. Patents protect inventions. Chapple897811_c04.indd 30 06-02-2023 11:03:48 Practice Questions 31 Practice Question 1 Your company publishes books that help IT professionals prepare for certification exams. You want to protect this intellectual property so that other organizations can’t simply sell copies of it online. What type of intellectual property protection is best suited for this situation? A. Trade secret B. Trademark C. Copyright D. Patent Practice Question 2 Which of the following would best be described as information rather than data? (Select two.) A. Receipt from a customer transaction B. Arrival time of a bus C. Average customer purchase size D. Population of a country E. Amount of rainfall in a city yesterday F. Per capita income of a country Chapple897811_c04.indd 31 06-02-2023 11:03:48 32 Cha p ter 4 Va l u e o f D a t a Practice Question 1 Explanation As you prepare for the ITF+ exam, you should be familiar with the different types of intellectual property protection and how they apply in different situations. Let’s walk through each of the options here. Trademarks are used to protect company/product names and logos. They would not protect a creative work, such as the content of a book. Patents are used to protect inventions and provide the inventor with the exclusive right to use that invention for a period of time. Books do not qualify as inventions, so patents are not appropriate in this situation. Trade secrets may be used to protect many types of intellectual property, but it requires that the company keep the information secret. Books are intended for sale to the public and can’t be maintained as trade secrets. Copyrights are used to protect creative works and would be the most appropriate mechanism to protect the content of a book from unauthorized duplication. Correct Answer: C. Copyright Practice Question 2 Explanation This question is asking us to select more than one correct answer. You’ll likely see a few of these questions on the ITF+ exam. You should handle these questions by noting the number of correct answers and then walking through each option one by one to see if you think it is correct. If you find “extra” answers, remember that you’re looking for the best answer choices. Remember that data consists of raw facts while information has been processed and analyzed. A receipt from a customer transaction is simply data—we haven’t gathered any meaningful information from it. The average customer purchase size for a business is, however, analyzed information, so that would be a correct answer. The arrival time of a bus and the amount of rainfall in a city yesterday are also just facts. They’re data that has not been turned into information. The population of a country is also just a fact and is data by itself, but when we use that data to compute the per capita income of a country, that becomes analyzed information. Correct Answers: C. Average customer purchase size, F. Per capita income of a country CHAPTER 5 Units of Measure Objective 1.5: Compare and contrast common units of measure Technologists throw around a lot of metrics and, as an IT professional, it’s crucial that you understand the common measures used for storage, network throughput, and processing speed. You’ll need to know how to compare these metrics and determine the largest, smallest, fastest, and slowest values. In this chapter, you’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.5, including the following topics: ▶▶ Storage unit ▶▶ Throughput unit ▶▶ Processing speed MEASURING DATA STORAGE You’ve probably heard that computers work with binary data, meaning data that is stored as simply 0s and 1s. Everything that happens inside a computer system uses combinations of 0s and 1s. From the operating system and software that we run to our Word documents and photos, everything is encoded in binary format. Computers can easily use this binary format to store data on disk, keep it in memory, or send it over a network. Let’s talk a little about how that actually works. 34 Chapter 5 Units of Measure Bits The basic unit of storage in any computer system is the bit. A bit is a single value that can be either 1 or 0. Those are the only two possible values for a bit. You can’t put the number 2 or the letter Z in a bit. It can only be a 1 or a 0. When we store data on a magnetic hard drive, the computer divides the drive up into bil- lions of tiny little spaces, each designed to store a single bit. If the value of the bit is 1, the computer places a magnetic charge in the location used by that bit. If the value of the bit is 0, the computer leaves no magnetic charge in that location. When data is stored on a solid-state hard drive or in memory, the process works the same way but using electricity instead of magnetism. If the value of a bit in memory is 1, there is a small electrical charge in that memory location. If the value of the bit is 0, there is no charge present. Bytes Computers may think in 0s and 1s, but that’s not the way that we human beings think. We’d much prefer to think of our data in terms of letters and numbers! Computers store the data that we’re more familiar with by combining multiple bits together. If we have 2 bits of data, we can use them together to represent four different values, as shown in Table 5.1. T A B L E 5. 1 Possible combinations of 2 bits First Bit Second Bit Decimal Value 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 3 If both of the bits are 0, that represents the decimal value 0. If the first bit is 0 and the second bit is 1, that’s a decimal value of 1. If the first bit is 1 and the second bit is 0, that’s the decimal number 2, and if both bits are 1, that’s the decimal number 3. Each time that we add another bit to our data, we double the number of possible values that we can describe. Table 5.2 shows how we can use 3 bits of data to store eight pos- sible values. Measuring Data Storage 35 T A B L E 5. 2 Possible combinations of 3 bits First Bit Second Bit Third Bit Decimal Value 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 4 1 0 1 5 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 7 Similarly, if we have 4 bits of data, we can store 16 possible values. As we increase the number of bits, we increase the number of values exponentially. Once we get up to 8 bits, we find ourselves able to store 256 possible values, ranging from 0 to 255. That’s an impor- tant number because we can store all of the possible characters and digits used by a com- puter system in this range. This combination of 8 bits is known as a byte, and the byte is the second important unit of storage. When you’re thinking about text data, you can think of each character as being a single byte, made up of 8 bits. Multiples of Bytes Many of the files that we store contains thousands, millions, billons, or even trillions of bytes! Instead of using extremely large numbers, we use larger units to help measure the size of stored data. You may already be familiar with this concept from the metric system; instead of referring to a distance as 1,000 meters, we can refer to that same distance as 1 kilometer. Data storage units use the same prefixes to denote multiples of bytes. Before you take the exam, you should be familiar with the standard multiples of bytes shown in Table 5.3. EXAM TIP You should be prepared to convert between these units. You may use the information in Table 5.3 and Table 5.4 to perform these conversions. For example, if you are presented with the fact that a file is 1.6 GB, you can use the table to convert that to 1,600 MB; 1,600,000 KB; or 1,600,000,000 bytes. 36 Chapter 5 Units of Measure T A B L E 5. 3 Data storage units Unit Number of Bytes Byte 1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 Terabyte (TB) 1,000,000,000,000 Petabyte (PB) 1,000,000,000,000,000 MEASURING DATA THROUGHPUT We use bytes to measure how much data we have stored in memory, on a hard disk, or in another location where data is at rest. When data isn’t at rest, it is in motion, being sent over a network. Networks don’t store data, so it doesn’t make sense to describe network capacity in terms of how much data a network can store. Networks move data around, so we measure network capacity in terms of the speed at which a netw

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