Introducing Poetry Composition Part 2 PDF

Poetic Composition PART 2: WORDS TONE Tone describes the writer’s attitude to a subject, just as our tone of voice expresses our attitude to what we are talking about. It is vital that we include the speaker’s tone in our interpretation of a poem’s central idea or message. If we do not take ton...

Poetic Composition PART 2: WORDS TONE Tone describes the writer’s attitude to a subject, just as our tone of voice expresses our attitude to what we are talking about. It is vital that we include the speaker’s tone in our interpretation of a poem’s central idea or message. If we do not take tone into consideration, we are likely to misinterpret the poem. Furthermore, the tone of the speaker or persona often changes so that the tone is not the same at the end of the poem as it is at the beginning. This tonal shift is an important device in the poem’s construction. Clearly, tone is created by the poet’s choice of words and the arrangement of words in the line or lines. Above all, it is important to remember that, however complicated the syntax of a line or lines of a poem might be, poetry is still written in sentences. When you read a poem, keep one eye on the full-stop. This is where the sense of the lines ends, NOT at the end of a line. DICTION The vocabulary of a poem, the poet’s choice of words, is called diction. “As a literary device, diction refers to the linguistic choices made by a writer to convey an idea or point of view, or tell a story, in an effective way.” https://literarydevices.net/diction/ The phrase poetic diction has a long and complex history, the explanations for which are beyond your requirements. At this stage, you are advised to avoid using this phrase when you are writing about poetry. A paragraph about diction could begin like this: The diction of ‘The Man from Snowy River’ is characterised by Banjo Patterson’s use of verbs of motion, adjectives that connote fearlessness, and nouns that identify the spectacular but treacherous features of the landscape. REPETITION REPETITION is Repeating a sound, a word, a phrase or a stanza. There are many forms of repetition, some of which are classed as figures of speech, some are classed as rhetorical devices. We are studying only a few forms of repetition. As a reader, or audience, of poetry, the most important task is to interpret WHY the poet uses these language devices. In the examples that follow, ask yourself why the poet has used repetition. The simplest, and most commonly recognised, form of repetition is to repeat a word: But O heart! heart! heart! O the bleeding drops of red, in ‘O Captain! My Captain’ Walt Whitman Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose. in ‘Bee Time Vine’ Gertrude Stein REPETITION: rhyme RHYME is the repetition of similar sounds in two or more words. fate state rate. The word rhyme comes from Old French rime. But there are many kinds of rhyme, especially in poetry, depending on where the rhyme occurs in the line or where the rhyme occurs in words that have more than one syllable. We are studying only a few commonly used rhyme forms. The most commonly used rhyme form in poetry occurs at the end of two lines. The lines are not necessarily sequential. These are called end rhyme. When a word or phrase in the interior of a line rhymes with a word or phrase at the end of a line, or within a different line, the rhyme is an internal rhyme. The use of rhyme in poetry is a way of organising the content of a line or sequence of lines. Rhymes are heard and therefore create auditory or acoustic effects in a poem. Rhymes also have a mnemonic function – they make it easier to remember lines. Rhymes are closely associated with the development of a poem’s key ideas. REPETITION: rhyme scheme A RHYME SCHEME is a pattern of end rhymes A poem’s rhyme scheme is usually mapped by using letters of the alphabet. The first word is given the letter ‘a’. He sent the flint stones flying, but the pony kept his feet, a He cleared the fallen timber in his stride, b And the man from Snowy River never shifted in his seat — a It was grand to see that mountain horseman ride. b Through the stringy barks and saplings, on the rough and broken ground, c Down the hillside at a racing pace he went; d And he never drew the bridle till he landed safe and sound, c At the bottom of that terrible descent. d A rhyme scheme can be applied throughout a poem or within a stanza. REPETITION: anaphora ANAPHORA is a rhetorical device - The repetition of a word or words at the beginning of successive clauses or phrases or lines I love thee to the depth and breadth and height My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight Across the stony ridges, For the ends of being and ideal grace. Across the rolling plain, I love thee to the level of every day’s in ‘Ballad of the Drover’ Henry Lawson Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light. I love thee freely, as men strive for right. I love thee purely, as they turn from praise. I love thee with the passion put to use In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith. in ‘Sonnet 43’ Elizabeth Barrett Browning REPETITION: assonance ASSONANCE occurs when two or more words that are close to one another use the same vowel sound. Assonance is classed as a figure of speech. Assonance creates musicality, rhythm and atmosphere. It is a feature of the poet’s DICTION. I am a child of the Dreamtime People In ‘Spiritual Song of the Aborigine’ Hyllus Maris REPETITION: alliteration ALLITERATION occurs when successive words, or words in close proximity, begin with the same consonant sound. Alliteration is classed as a figure of speech. He sent the flint stones flying, but the pony kept his feet. He cleared the fallen timber in his stride, Banjo Patterson But Harry pushes onward His horses’ strength he tries, What effects are created by the alliterative f In hope to reach the river and the alliterative h in these two extracts? Before the flood shall rise. Henry Lawson REPETITION: sibilance SIBILANCE occurs when a hissing sound is created in a group of words by repeating ‘s’ ‘sh’ ‘z’ ‘ch’ or ‘c’ [as in city] Sibilance is classed as a figure of speech. I am the river, softly singing Chanting our songs on my way to the sea My spirit is the dust-devils Mirages, that dance on the plain in ‘Spiritual Song of the Aborigine’ Hyllus Maris What effects are generated by Hyllus Maris’ use of sibilance in this extract?  REPETITION: consonance CONSONANCE is The repetition of consonant sounds (not letters) in lines of poetry. The consonance may occur at the beginning words or within words or at the ends of words. Consonance is classed as a figure of speech. “We’ve breasted bigger rivers When floods were at their height Nor shall this gutter stop us From getting home tonight!” in ‘The Ballad of the Drover’, Henry Lawson In Lawson’s ballad, Harry the drover speaks to his dog and horses as the storm begins and the rain falls heavily. The use of consonance, a repeated t sound, mimics the sound and the density of the pelting rain.  JUXTAPOSITION JUXTAPOSITION is a form of contrast. It occurs when two concepts, objects, scenes, words, phrases, sentences – anything really – are placed immediately next to each other. Juxtaposition, therefore, intensifies the contrast between two quantities or qualities. In Latin, the preposition iuxta means next to. Juxtaposition can only occur if the two things are placed side-by-side. There shall be In that rich earth a richer dust concealed in the sonnet ‘The Soldier’, Rupert Brooke The ‘rich earth’ is juxtaposed with the ‘richer dust’, creating a permanent connection between the “foreign” soil and the remains of the dead soldier, simultaneously evoking the biblical voice of God, “For dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return”, and the commonly held belief that a country is defined by its land. The juxtaposition is literal because the soldier is buried in the earth but it is also metaphorical because the soldier’s body is represented as a “richer dust” than mere soil.  RHETORICAL DEVICE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE FIGURE OF SPEECH These three terms each have a long and complicated history, the details of which are beyond your requirements in Year 8 and Year 9. All three, however, are very commonly used. On the next slide, I offer what I hope is a simplified and comprehensible explanation of each term that will serve you until you reach senior English.  the trouble with RHETORIC When you read about or study rhetoric, you will learn to define it as the persuasive techniques of spoken or written language. But the concept behind the word has archaic origins. In ancient societies with no awareness of writing, the ability to speak informatively, cohesively, was essential and admired. Chiefs, bards and seers used a variety of techniques to gain attention and retain information. Linguistic techniques included rhythm, repetition, formulaic lists, kinds of emphasis, balance and antithesis, ellipsis, and words used to evoke mental images. Such language could be packaged in different forms, or generic shapes, designed for accurate retention and effective delivery, such as: genealogy or patronymic roll-calls, praising/blaming, lamentation/supplication, proverbial wisdom, statements of law, warnings and other manoeuvres intended to influence and persuade. In the course of time, techniques were organised into bodies of received knowledge and taught alongside logic, a subject associated with the new craft of writing. In the ancient Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta, this craft became the foundation of education. The devices of rhetoric have never lost their links with poetry or their practical ties to the law. Many manuals on the subject were compiled, usually listing five canons or offices of rhetoric, concerned with gathering, arranging and presenting one’s material. Each canon has a Greek and a Latin name 😁 Finding or researching one’s material arranging or organising one’s material choosing the appropriate language according to audience and context. This canon includes the traditional rhetorical devices and figures of speech. performing, proclaiming, narrating the material training the mind to ensure accurate recall for public performance The Oxford Companion to the English Language McArthur T., Editor. OUP, 1992. New York. rhetorical device: a general term used to describe any use of language in a way that is calculated to produce a certain response or way of thinking in the reader or audience. Figurative language can be thought of as a subset of rhetorical devices. figurative language: a general term used to describe the use of words in an ornamental way rather than their literal meaning. Many authoritative sources use the term as a synonym for ‘figure of speech’, or as an antonym for ‘literal language’. figure of speech: the techniques of figurative language; ( cf ‘trope’ and ‘scheme’) a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in distinctive ways. Devices traditionally regarded as figures of speech include alliteration, hyperbole, apostrophe, assonance, irony, metaphor, paradox, personification, pun, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, zeugma.  FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: IMAGERY Imagery is The use of figurative language (or illustrations in a visual text) to represent objects, actions or ideas. NESA Glossary of Terms and Concepts Definitions of imagery vary 😅. In the NESA definition above, imagery is limited to the use of figurative language to create vivid ‘pictures’ in the reader’s mind, connecting the represented concept to the senses. Other definitions class imagery as literal (or descriptive) and figurative. Note that imagery is not a figure of speech. That is, it is not a technique of figurative language. It is the use of figurative language for the purpose of representation. Here is the entry from Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/art/poetic-imagery poetic imagery, the sensory and figurative language used in poetry. The object or experience that a poet is contemplating is usually perceived by that poet in a relationship to some second object or event, person, or thing. The poet may be thought to transfer from this second object certain qualities, which are then perceived as attributes of the original object, the poet’s intention being to decorate, illuminate, emphasize, or renew by such transferences the original character of that which is contemplated. The making or finding of the image is an activity by which the poet invites the reader to establish certain relationships, which in turn involve value judgments.  FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: SYMBOLS Symbols are a kind of figurative language https://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/repository/files/writing-for-english-courses/Symbolism-in-Poetry.pdf A symbol is a person, object, place, event, or action that suggests more than its literal meaning. In poetry, symbols can be categorized as conventional, something that is generally recognized to represent a certain idea. [For example,] a rose conventionally symbolizes romance, love, or beauty. [or] symbols can be categorized as contextual or literary, something that goes beyond a traditional, public meaning. [For example.] night conventionally symbolizes darkness, death, or grief; contextually it symbolizes other possibilities such as loneliness, isolation, fear, or emptiness. Whereas conventional symbols are used in poetry to convey tone and meaning, contextual or literary symbols reflect the internal state of mind of the speaker as revealed through the images.  FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: APOSTROPHE APOSTROPHE is a figure of speech – i.e., a technique of figurative language – rhetorically addressing someone or something that cannot respond such as a dead person or concept. Death, be not proud, though some have called thee mighty John Donne Out, out, thou strumpet Fortune William Shakespeare O pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth William Shakespeare Busy old fool, unruly sun John Donne O Captain! My Captain! Walt Whitman FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: METAPHOR A metaphor is a figure of speech (i.e., a technique of figurative language) in which something is represented as something else. “[A rhetorical figure with two senses:] (1) All figures of speech achieve their effect through association, comparison and resemblance. Figures like antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile are all species of metaphor. Although this sense is not current, it lies behind the use of metaphorical and figurative as antonyms of literal. (2) A figure of speech which concisely compares two things by saying that one is the other.” The Oxford Companion to the English Language Tom McArthur, Editor. OUP, 1992, New York. The second sense is the current usage. A metaphor, then, is a statement of equivalence. A metaphor can extend throughout a stanza: extended metaphor A metaphor can be used as the master metaphor of a whole text: allegory  FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: SIMILE a figure of speech – i.e., a technique of figurative language – in which a more or less fanciful or unrealistic comparison is made using like or as. Some dogs are like wolves, is a prosaic and realistic comparison and therefore not a simile. The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, from a poem by Lord Byron, is a simile because the savagery is wolf-like, not the Assyrian, and neither savagery nor the Assyrian is physically like a wolf. (The word fold refers to the pen in which sheep are held.) The Oxford Companion to the English Language McArthur T., Editor. OUP, 1992. New York. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: PERSONIFICATION Personification has been regarded as both a figure of speech in its own right and as a species of metaphor. When animals, plants, elements of nature and abstract ideas are given human attributes, then we have personification. Personification is common in poetry, for example, portraying the moon as female or a young woman. But personification can also refer to a person as the embodiment of an idea. For example, “She is the personification of tact.” This use is less common in poetry. In allegorical texts from the Middle Ages, human virtues and vices were often personified and thus written with a capital letter to make them a proper noun: Avarice, Greed, Chastity, Time, Death, etc. In the 17th and 18th centuries, concepts such as Psyche, Love, Truth, Reason, and Ignorance were often personified in sculpture, painting, poetry and prose fiction. The Oxford Companion to the English Language McArthur T., Editor. OUP, 1992. New York.  FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: METONYMY A figure of speech – i.e., a technique of figurative language - which designates something by the name of something associated with it. The Crown substituting for monarchy; the stage substituting for the theatre; the bottle substituting for alcoholic drinks, are examples of nouns being used as metonyms. In the phrase the pen is mightier than the sword, the words pen and sword are used metonymically: pen is a metonym for writing and sword is a metonym for aggression or war The Oxford Companion to the English Language McArthur T., Editor. OUP, 1992. New York. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: SYNECDOCHE In rhetoric, a figure of speech – i.e., a technique of figurative language – concerned with parts and wholes: 1: where the part represents the whole. In a hundred head of cattle, head represents one animal In all hands on deck, hands represents each member of the crew 2: where the whole represents the part: England lost the Ashes series to Australia England and Australia represent the cricket teams from each country. The Oxford Companion to the English Language McArthur T., Editor. OUP, 1992. New York. Summary RHETORICAL DEVICES DICTION a writer’s choice of words FIGURES OF SPEECH Write a list in your workbook SOUND PATTERNS or irony THE ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES OF POETRY hyperbole rhythm apostrophe FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE metaphor metre rhyme imagery simile rhyme scheme symbol personification repetition metonymy assonance alliteration consonance assonance sibilance consonance onomatopoeia sibilance alliteration … and many others