Oslo Manual PDF - Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data - OECD - 2005

3rd Edition Oslo Manual GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities The ability to determine the scale of innovation activities, the characteristics of innovating firms, and the internal and systemic factors that can influenc...

3rd Edition Oslo Manual GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities The ability to determine the scale of innovation activities, the characteristics of innovating firms, and the internal and systemic factors that can influence innovation is a prerequisite for the pursuit and analysis of policies aimed at fostering innovation. The Oslo Manual is the foremost international source of guidelines for the collection and use of data on innovation activities in industry. This third edition has been updated to take account of the progress made in understanding the innovation process and its economic impact, and the experience gained from recent rounds of innovation surveys in OECD and non-member countries. For the first time, the Manual investigates the field of non-technological innovation and the linkages between different innovation types. It also includes an annex on the implementation of innovation surveys in developing countries. Those with access to all OECD books on line should use this link: http://www.sourceoecd.org/9264013083 SourceOECD is the OECD’s online library of books, periodicals and statistical databases. For more information about this award-winning service and free trials ask your librarian, or write to us at Oslo Manual GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA Oslo Manual The full text of this book is available on line via these links: http://www.sourceoecd.org/scienceIT/9264013083 http://www.sourceoecd.org/statisticssourcesmethods/9264013083 « www.oecd.org E U RO P E A N COMMISSION 3rd Edition ISBN 92-64-01308-3 92 2005 11 1 P -:HSTCQE=UVXU]\: E U RO P E A N COMMISSION 3rd Edition The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities Oslo Manual GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA Third edition A joint publication of OECD and Eurostat ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT STATISTICAL OFFICE OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies. The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD. OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering and research on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions, guidelines and standards agreed by its members. This manual has been endorsed by the OECD Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy (CSTP), the OECD Committee on Statistics (CSTAT) and the Eurostat Working Party on Science, Technology and Innovation Statistics (WPSTI). Publié en français sous le titre : Manuel d’Oslo 3e édition PRINCIPES DIRECTEURS POUR LE RECUEIL ET L’INTERPRÉTATION DES DONNÉES SUR L’INNOVATION © OECD 2005 No reproduction, copy, transmission or translation of this publication may be made without written permission. Applications should be sent to OECD Publishing: [email protected] or by fax (33 1) 45 24 13 91. Permission to photocopy a portion of this work should be addressed to the Centre français d'exploitation du droit de copie, 20, rue des Grands-Augustins, 75006 Paris, France ([email protected]). OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA Foreword I t has been long understood that the generation, exploitation and diffusion of knowledge are fundamental to economic growth, development and the well being of nations. Central to this is the need for better measures of innovation. Over time the nature and landscape of innovation have changed, and so has the need for indicators to capture those changes and provide policy makers with appropriate tools of analysis. A considerable body of work was undertaken during the 1980s and 1990s to develop models and analytical frameworks for the study of innovation. Experimentation with early surveys and their results, along with the need for a coherent set of concepts and tools led to the first edition of the Oslo Manual in 1992, which focused on technological product and process (TPP) innovation in manufacturing. This became the reference for various large scale surveys examining the nature and impacts of innovation in the business sector, such as the European Community Innovation Survey (CIS), currently in its fourth round. Results from such surveys have driven further refinements in the Oslo Manual framework in terms of concepts, definitions and methodology leading to a second edition published in 1997 which, among other things, expanded coverage to service sectors. Since then, the analysis of results from surveys and changing policy needs led to the launching of another revision of the manual, the result of which can be found in this third edition. As there has been a growing sense that much of innovation in service sectors is not adequately captured by the TPP concept, it was decided to address the question of non technological innovation in this revision. As a result, the scope of what is considered an innovation has now been expanded to include two new types: marketing and organisational innovation. These are certainly new concepts, but they have already been tested in several OECD countries, with promising results. New to this edition is also an effort to address the systemic dimension of innovation, through a chapter focusing on innovation linkages. Lessons drawn from results of previous surveys have also been incorporated in order to refine existing concepts and methodological issues, such as the measurement of innovation inputs and outcomes, as well as the improvement of data collection methods. Innovation also occurs outside the OECD region: a growing number of countries in Latin America, Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa have begun undertaking surveys based on the Oslo Manual. Although the design of those surveys was usually intended to comply with such standards, many of them have adapted the Oslo methodology to take into account specific user needs and the characteristics of statistical systems in these countries with different economic and social backgrounds. National adaptations ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 3 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA were developed by each country and followed different approaches. For example, it is widely accepted that diffusion and incremental changes to innovation account for much of the innovation occurring in non OECD countries. Using these rich and diverse experiences, an annex has been added to this edition of the Oslo Manual that draws on some of the lessons learned, and provides further guidance for future innovation surveys in non OECD countries. The Oslo Manual, developed jointly by Eurostat and the OECD, is part of a continuously evolving family of manuals devoted to the measurement and interpretation of data relating to science, technology and innovation. This includes manuals, guidelines and handbooks covering R&D (Frascati Manual), globalisation indicators, patents, the information society, human resources in S&T (Canberra Manual), and biotechnology statistics. Prepared under the joint aegis of the OECD and the European Commission (Eurostat), this third edition of the Oslo Manual is the result of a three year collaborative process that has involved the OECD Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators (NESTI) and the Eurostat Working Party on Science, Technology and Innovation Statistics (WPSTI) as well as a number of outside experts. This manual provides guidelines for collecting and interpreting innovation data in an internationally comparable manner. Finding consensus has sometimes meant reaching compromises and agreeing to conventions. As with other such guidelines, there are known limitations, but each edition of the Oslo Manual constitutes a step forward in our understanding of the innovation process. While this ongoing, incremental learning incorporates the lessons of earlier studies, the Manual is also an ambitious tool in which experimentation and testing are used to challenge the boundaries of what is understood by innovation. Many should be thanked for their valuable contributions. A special acknowledgement goes to experts from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom who led the work of six focus groups which examined a variety of topics and expressed valuable recommendations for the revision. The drafting of the revised Oslo Manual was undertaken by Dr. Peter Mortensen and Dr. Carter Bloch from the Danish Centre for Studies in Research and Research Policy, under the guidance of the OECD and Eurostat. The annex on innovation surveys in developing countries was drafted by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, based on a proposal and draft paper by the Red Iberoamericana de Indicadores de Ciencia y Tecnología (RICYT) and following a broad process of consultation with many national experts. Nobuo Tanaka, Director for Science, Technology and Industry, OECD 4 Michel Glaude, Fred Gault, Director, Directorate F Chair of NESTI; (Social Statistics and Director, Science, Innovation Information Society), and Electronic Information Eurostat Division, Statistics Canada ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA Table of Contents Chapter 1. Objectives and Scope of the Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 2. 9 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors influencing the scope of the Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. What is measurable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. What is it of value to measure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scope of the Manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Sector coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Innovation at the level of the firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Types of innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Diffusion and the degree of novelty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Providing data on the key issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Innovation activities and expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Factors influencing innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. The innovating firm and the impact of innovation . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Linkages in the innovation process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some survey issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Approach to data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The relationship between the Oslo Manual and other international standards and related concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1. Manuals for the measurement of science and technology activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2. Other standards and classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3. Other related concepts and surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Final remark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 14 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Chapter 2. Innovation Theory and Measurement Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Economics of innovation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A measurement framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sectoral and regional aspects of innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Innovation in services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Innovation in low- and medium-technology industries . . . . . . 4.3. Innovation in small and medium-sized enterprises . . . . . . . . . ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 22 22 23 24 25 28 28 33 37 38 38 39 5 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 4.4. Regional innovation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5. Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Areas for investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. What can be measured? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Inputs to innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Linkages and the role of diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4. The impact of innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5. Incentives and obstacles to innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6. Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 39 40 40 41 41 42 42 43 43 Chapter 3. Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main type of innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distinguishing between types of innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Distinguishing between product and process innovations . . . . 4.2. Distinguishing between product innovations and marketing innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Distinguishing between service (product) innovations and marketing innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Distinguishing between process and marketing innovations. . 4.5. Distinguishing between process and organisational innovations 4.6. Distinguishing between marketing and organisational innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes which are not considered innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Ceasing to use a process, a marketing method or an organisation method, or to market a product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Simple capital replacement or extension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Changes resulting purely from changes in factor prices . . . . . . 5.4. Customisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5. Regular seasonal and other cyclical changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6. Trading of new or significantly improved products . . . . . . . . . . Novelty and diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The innovative firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collecting data on innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 56 56 56 57 57 57 58 59 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Chapter 4. Institutional Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5. 6. 7. 8. 1. 2. 6 The approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. The primary statistical unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. The secondary statistical unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 46 47 53 53 54 54 55 55 56 56 64 64 65 68 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 3. 4. 5. Classification by main economic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classifications by size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Type of institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 71 72 72 72 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Chapter 5. Linkages in the Innovation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 1. 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inbound diffusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Types of linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Collecting data on linkages in the innovation process . . . . . . . 2.3. Other linkage indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outbound diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knowledge management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 78 78 82 85 86 87 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Chapter 6. Measuring Innovation Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 The components and coverage of innovation activities. . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.1. Research and experimental development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.2. Activities for product and process innovations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 2.3. Activities for marketing and organisational innovations . . . . . 95 2.4. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.5. The borderline between R&D and non-R&D innovation activities 96 2.6. The development and use of software in innovation activities 97 Collecting data on innovation activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 3.1. Qualitative data on innovation activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.2. Quantitative data on innovation activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 3.3. Other measurement issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.4. Breakdown by type of expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.5. Breakdown by source of funds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 3.6. The subject approach versus the object approach . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Chapter 7. Objectives, Obstacles and Outcomes of Innovation . . . . . . . . 105 1. 2. 3. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Objectives and effects of innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other measures of impacts on enterprise performance . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Impact on turnover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. The impact of process innovations on costs and employment 3.3. The impact of innovation on productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 106 106 109 109 111 111 7 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 4. 5. Factors hampering innovation activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions on the appropriability of innovations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 114 Chapter 8. Survey Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 1. 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. The target population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. The frame population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Mandatory or voluntary survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Census or sample survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Sampling techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5. Panel data surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6. Survey methods and suitable respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7. The questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8. Innovation and R&D surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimation of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Weighting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Non-response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Presentation of results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency of data collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 118 118 119 119 119 120 120 121 122 122 123 125 126 126 126 128 129 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Annex A. Innovation Surveys in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Annex B. Examples of Innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 3. 4. 5. 6. List of boxes 1.1 Structure of the Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Manuals and other guidelines for the measurement of scientific and technological activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.1 “Front office” vs. “back-office” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 143 List of figures 2.1 The innovation measurement framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 14 List of tables 4.1 Industrial classification proposed for innovation surveys in the business enterprise sector based on ISIC Rev. 3.1 and NACE Rev. 1.1 . . . . . . . 69 5.1 Sources for transfers of knowledge and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 7.1 Factors relating to the objectives and effects of innovation . . . . . . . 108 7.2 Factors hampering innovation activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 8 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data © OECD/European Communities 2005 Chapter 1 Objectives and Scope of the Manual ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 9 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 1. Introduction 1. It is widely accepted that innovation is central to the growth of output and productivity. However, while our understanding of innovation activities and their economic impact has greatly increased since the first edition of the Manual, it is still deficient. For example, as the world economy evolves, so does the process of innovation. Globalisation has led to dramatic increases in access to information and new markets for firms. It has also resulted in greater international competition and in new organisational forms in order to manage global supply chains. Owing to advances in technologies and greater flows of information, knowledge is more and more viewed as a central driver of economic growth and innovation. Yet, we do not fully understand how these factors affect innovation. 2. In order to develop policies that support innovation appropriately, it is necessary to better understand several critical aspects of the innovation process, such as innovation activities other than R&D, the interactions among actors and the relevant knowledge flows. Policy development also requires further advances in the analysis of innovation, which in turn requires obtaining better information. 3. The first edition of the Manual, issued in 1992, and the surveys undertaken using it, including the Community Innovation Survey (CIS) organised by the EU and comparable surveys in Australia and Canada, showed that it is possible to develop and collect data on the complex and differentiated process of innovation. 4. The second edition, issued in 1997, updated the framework of concepts, definitions and methodology to incorporate survey experience and greater understanding of the innovation process and to cover a wider range of industries. It improved the guidelines for developing internationally comparable innovation indicators for OECD countries and discussed the analytical and policy problems for which the indicators have relevance. 5. Both the first and second editions used the technological product and process (TPP) definition of innovation. This reflected a focus on firms’ technological development of new products and new production techniques and their diffusion to other firms. Discussion of organisational innovation and non-technological innovation was included in an annex. 10 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 6. Since 1992, the number of countries conducting innovation surveys has grown dramatically: EU countries, other OECD countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Japan, and a large number of non-OECD economies, among them several Latin American countries, Russia and South Africa. 7. This third edition of the Manual draws on the large amount of data and experience resulting from these surveys. It expands the innovation measurement framework in three important ways. First, it places greater emphasis on the role of linkages with other firms and institutions in the innovation process. Second, it recognises the importance of innovation in less R & D - i n t e n s iv e i n d u s t r i e s , s u ch a s s e r v i c e s a n d l ow - t e ch n o l o gy manufacturing. This edition modifies certain aspects of the framework (such as definitions and relevant activities) to better accommodate the services sector. Third, the definition of innovation is expanded to include two additional types of innovations, organisational innovation and marketing innovation. Also new to the Manual is an annex on innovation surveys in nonOECD countries and reflects the fact that a growing number of them now conduct innovation surveys. 8. Evaluation of linkages is expanded because of the importance of knowledge flows among firms and other organisations for the development and diffusion of innovations. This helps to highlight the role of organisational structures and practices that promote the sharing and use of knowledge and interaction with other firms and public research institutions. These also include the forming of closer relationships with suppliers and ongoing development of marketing practices to better reach customers. Linkages are now addressed in a separate chapter covering a variety of interactions ranging from arm’s-length exchanges of information to active involvement in joint innovation projects. 9. While the second edition of the Manual covered services, it primarily focused on manufacturing industries. However, innovation in servicesoriented sectors can differ substantially from innovation in many manufacturing-oriented sectors. It is often less formally organised, more incremental in nature and less technological. In order to establish a framework that better accommodates this broad range of industries, this edition modifies a number of definitions, terms and concepts. 10. To identify the full range of changes that firms make to improve performance and their success in improving economic outcomes requires a broader framework than technological product and process innovation. The inclusion of marketing and organisational innovations creates a more complete framework, one that is better able to capture the changes that affect firm performance and contribute to the accumulation of knowledge. ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 11 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 11. The role of organisational innovation is emphasised by Lam (2005): “Economists assume that organisational change is a response to technical change, when in fact organisational innovation could be a necessary precondition for technical innovation.” Organisational innovations are not only a supporting factor for product and process innovations; they can also have an important impact on firm performance on their own. Organisational innovations can improve the quality and efficiency of work, enhance the exchange of information, and improve firms’ ability to learn and utilise new knowledge and technologies. 12. Firms may also allocate large amounts of resources to market research and the development of new marketing practices, such as targeting new markets or market segments and developing new ways of promoting products. New marketing practices can play a central role in firms’ performance. Marketing practices are also important for the success of new products, and market research and contacts with customers can play a crucial role in product and process development through demand-led innovation. The inclusion of organisational and marketing innovation also allows for more extensive analysis of the interactions between different types of innovations, in particular the importance of implementing organisational changes in order to benefit from other types of innovations. 13. Organisational innovations were discussed in the second edition of the Manual, and there is now some practical experience with collection of data on organisational changes. This experience includes specialised surveys on organisational innovation (Wengel et al., 2000)and its inclusion in innovation s u r veys (e.g. Au st ral i a n I n n ovat i o n S u r vey 2 0 0 3 ) o r q u e st i o n s o n organisational changes (the CIS3 survey, the Japanese National Innovation Survey 2003, among others). This type of data has also been used in empirical analysis, for example of the relationship between organisational innovation, ICT investment and productivity (e.g. Brynjolfsson and Hitt, 2000; OECD, 2004). 14. Marketing innovations are new to the Manual. While there is less experience with marketing innovations than with organisational innovations, questions on marketing changes have been included in a number of innovation surveys,1 and there has been substantial field testing of marketing concepts in a number of countries. 15. To achieve a full picture of innovation activities, it is necessary to include marketing methods in the framework. There are at least two reasons for including these as a separate category, as opposed to integrating them with organisational or process innovations. First, marketing innovations can be important for firm performance and the overall innovation process. Identifying marketing innovations allows for the analysis of their impact and 12 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA their interaction with other types of innovations. Second, a defining characteristic of marketing innovations is the orientation towards customers and markets, with a view to improving sales and market share. These economic objectives may differ greatly from those of process innovations, which tend to focus on productive quality and efficiency. Grouping marketing innovations with organisational innovations would also be problematic because some marketing practices do not fit into concepts of organisational changes and because this would greatly dilute data on organisational innovations, making it difficult to interpret the results. 16. The Manual’s definitions and concepts have therefore been adapted, based on survey experience in Australia and other countries, to include organisational and marketing innovations in innovation surveys. The definitions of these types of innovations are still under development and are less well established than the definitions of product and process innovation. 17. The goals and scope of innovation surveys can differ in terms of the aspects of innovation to be covered and the level of detail. Furthermore, in expanding coverage from product and process innovation to include marketing and organisational innovation, surveys can take one of a number of approaches. For example, they can provide equal coverage of all types of innovation and cover marketing and organisational innovation to some extent, while still maintaining product and process innovations as the core innovation types, or they can focus exclusively on product and process innovation. The Manual provides guidelines that can be of use for all types of approaches. In addition, one or more types of innovations can be covered in greater detail through specialised surveys. 18. The addition of organisational and marketing innovations, along with the use of a broad definition of innovation that includes activities to both develop and adopt innovations, means that an increasing percentage of firms is likely to meet the basic requirements for being “innovative”. Methods are therefore needed for identifying different types of innovative firms, based on the types of innovations that they have implemented and on their innovative capabilities and activities. It is not enough to know whether firms are innovative or not; it is necessary to know how firms innovate and what types of innovations they implement. 19. With these points in mind, the aim of the present chapter is to give an overview of the coverage and contents of the Manual (see Box 1.1). ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 13 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA Box 1.1. Structure of the Manual The Manual starts with a general discussion of points that are likely to have some effect on the choice of indicators (Chapter 2): ● An adequate conceptual understanding of the structure and characteristics of the innovation process and its implications for policymaking. ● The key unresolved problems which further data could clarify. It continues with a framework for innovation surveys: ● Basic definitions of innovation, innovation activities and the innovative firm (Chapter 3). ● Institutional classifications (Chapter 4). After that, suggestions and recommendations are made as to the types of issues to be covered in national and international innovation surveys: ● Measuring linkages in the innovation process; types of knowledge and their sources (Chapter 5). ● Innovation activities and their measurement (Chapter 6). ● Objectives, barriers and impacts of innovation (Chapter 7). The Manual also contains two annexes: ● Innovation surveys in developing economies (Annex A). ● A detailed list of innovation examples (Annex B). 2. Factors influencing the scope of the Manual 20. The aim of the Manual is to provide guidelines for the collection and interpretation of data on innovation. Innovation data can have many uses and the Manual is designed to accommodate these various uses. One reason for collecting innovation data is to better understand innovation and its relation to economic growth. This requires both knowledge of innovation activities that have a direct impact on firm performance (for example through greater demand or reduced costs), and of the factors that affect their ability to innovate. Another purpose is to provide indicators for benchmarking national performance. This both informs policy making and allows for international comparison. There is a need to collect new indicators but also a desire to maintain existing indicators for comparisons over time. The Manual is designed to achieve a balance between these different needs. 21. How can one decide on the appropriate scope, structure, terminology, etc., for internationally comparable data collection? The variety of subjects covered by both specialised and general innovation surveys is evidence that 14 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA many types of data are potentially available. Obviously, a survey covering all possible topics would be excessively cumbersome. Priorities must be identified, and topics, industries and survey approaches on which to concentrate must be chosen. There are two main issues: what is measurable and what is it of value to measure? 2.1. What is measurable? 22. Innovation is a continuous process. Firms constantly make changes to products and processes and collect new knowledge, and it is more difficult to measure a dynamic process than a static activity. With the objective of capturing this process, the Manual presents guidelines for collecting data on the general process of innovation (for example, innovation activities, expenditures and linkages), the implementation of significant changes in the firm (i.e. innovations), the factors that influence innovation activities, and the outcomes of innovation. 2.2. What is it of value to measure? 23. In constructing innovation indicators, the information needs of policy makers and analysts are a paramount consideration. Chapter 2 reviews these needs, which are part of the broad information system that helps to reduce uncertainty in policy making and which have been influenced, since the first edition of the Manual, by developments in the economics of innovation. 24. Innovation policy has developed as an amalgam of science and technology policy and industrial policy. It takes as a given that knowledge in all its forms plays a crucial role in economic progress, and that innovation is a complex and systemic phenomenon. Systems approaches to innovation shift the focus of policy towards an emphasis on the interplay of institutions and the interactive processes at work in the creation of knowledge and in its diffusion and application. The term “national innovation system” has been coined to represent this set of institutions and these knowledge flows. This theoretical perspective influences the choice of questions to include in an innovation survey, and the need, for example, of extensive coverage of linkages and knowledge sources. 25. Systems approaches complement theories that focus on the innovative firm, the reasons for innovating and the activities undertaken by firms. The forces that drive innovation at the level of the firm and the innovations that succeed in improving firm performance are of central importance for policy making. Questions on the implementation of innovations, the interaction of different types of innovations, and on the objectives and barriers to innovation are the source of relevant data. ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 15 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 3. Scope of the Manual 26. For reasons summarised below: ● The Manual covers innovation in the business enterprise sector only. ● It deals with innovation at the level of the firm. ● It covers four types of innovations: product, process, organisational and marketing. ● It covers diffusion up to “new to the firm”. 3.1. Sector coverage 27. Innovation can occur in any sector of the economy, including government services such as health or education. The Manual’s guidelines, however, are essentially designed to deal with innovations in the business enterprise sector alone. This includes manufacturing, primary industries and the services sector. 28. Innovation is also important for the public sector. However, less is known about innovation processes in non-market-oriented sectors. Much work remains to be done to study innovation and develop a framework for the collection of innovation data in the public sector.2 Such work could form the basis for a separate manual. 3.2. Innovation at the level of the firm 29. The Manual is concerned with the collection of innovation data at the level of the firm. It does not cover industry- or economy-wide changes such as the emergence of a new market, the development of a new source of raw materials or semi-manufactured goods, or the reorganisation of an industry. Nonetheless, it is possible in some cases to estimate industry- or economywide changes, such as the emergence of a new market or industry reorganisation, by aggregating data for individual firms. 30. The first three chapters of the Manual use the generic term “firm”. The term is given a specific statistical definition in Chapter 4, which deals with classifications. The precise definition used in a study or survey can affect the results, as the subsidiaries of multinational corporations may be organised in different ways, or a multinational may introduce a given innovation country by country, market by market, or simultaneously throughout the group. 3.3. Types of innovations 31. A firm can make many types of changes in its methods of work, its use of factors of production and the types of output that improve its productivity and/or commercial performance. The Manual defines four types of innovations that encompass a wide range of changes in firms’ activities: 16 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA product innovations, process innovations, organisational innovations and marketing innovations. 32. Full definitions of the four types of innovations can be found in Chapter 3. Product innovations involve significant changes in the capabilities of goods or services. Both entirely new goods and services and significant improvements to existing products are included. Process innovations represent significant changes in production and delivery methods. 33. Organisational innovations refer to the implementation of new organisational methods. These can be changes in business practices, in workplace organisation or in the firm’s external relations. Marketing innovations involve the implementation of new marketing methods. These can include changes in product design and packaging, in product promotion and placement, and in methods for pricing goods and services. 34. An important concern when expanding the definition of innovation is to maintain continuity with the earlier definition of technological product and process (TPP) innovation.3 However, the decision to include the services sector requires a few minor modifications in the definitions of product and process innovation to reflect innovation activities in the services sector more adequately and to reduce the manufacturing orientation. The revised definitions (see Chapter 3) remain very comparable to the earlier (TPP) ones. 35. One change is the removal of the word “technological” from the definitions, as the word raises a concern that many services sector firms would interpret “technological” to mean “using high-technology plant and equipment”, and thus not applicable to many of their product and process innovations. 3.4. Diffusion and the degree of novelty 36. The Manual deals with changes that involve a significant degree of novelty for the firm. It excludes changes that are minor or lack a sufficient degree of novelty. However, an innovation does not need to be developed by the firm itself but can be acquired from other firms or institutions through the process of diffusion. 37. Diffusion is the way in which innovations spread, through market or non-market channels, from their very first implementation to different consumers, countries, regions, sectors, markets and firms. Without diffusion, an innovation has no economic impact. The minimum requirement for a change in a firm’s products or functions to be considered an innovation is that it is new (or significantly improved) to the firm. Three other concepts for the novelty of innovations are discussed in Chapter 3: new to the market, new to the world and disruptive innovations. ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 17 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 38. There are two main reasons for using “new to the firm” as the minimum requirement of an innovation. First, adoption of innovations is important for the innovation system as a whole. It involves a flow of knowledge to adopting firms. Furthermore, the learning process in adopting an innovation can lead to subsequent improvements in the innovation and to the development of new products, processes and other innovations. Second, the main impact of innovation on economic activity stems from the diffusion of initial innovations to other firms. Diffusion is captured by covering innovations that are new to the firm. 39. Of note, the Manual does not cover the diffusion of a new technology t o o t h e r d iv i si on s o r p a r ts o f a f i r m a f te r i t s i n i ti a l a d o p t i o n o r commercialisation.4 For example, the first implementation of new production technology in one of five factories owned by the same firm is counted as innovation, but implementation of the same technology in the remaining four factories is not. 4. Providing data on the key issues 4.1. Innovation activities and expenditures 40. Innovation activities include all scientific, technological, organisational, financial and commercial steps which actually lead, or are intended to lead, to the implementation of innovations. Some of these activities may be innovative in their own right, while others are not novel but are necessary to implementation. 41. Innovation comprises a number of activities that are not included in R&D, such as later phases of development for preproduction, production and distribution, development activities with a lesser degree of novelty, support activities such as training and market preparation, and development and implementation activities for innovations such as new marketing methods or new organisational methods which are not product and process innovations. Innovation activities may also include acquisition of external knowledge or capital goods that is not part of R&D. A detailed breakdown of innovation activities and their descriptions, along with measurement issues, can be found in Chapter 6. 42. During a given period, a firm’s innovation activities may be of three kinds: 18 ● Successful in having resulted in the implementation of a new innovation (though not necessarily commercially successful). ● Ongoing, work in progress, which has not yet resulted in the implementation of an innovation. ● Abandoned before the implementation of an innovation. ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 43. Expenditures are measured on the basis of the sum of these three kinds of activity over a given period of time (see Chapter 6). An alternative would be to collect information on total expenditures on activities related to individual innovations. Firms have found it difficult to report a full set of data whichever approach is used, yet this is an essential data set for economic and policy analysis purposes. It is hoped that, with successive exercises, firms will find it in their own interest to cost their innovation activities. 4.2. Factors influencing innovation 44. Enterprises can engage in innovation for a number of reasons. Their objectives may involve products, markets, efficiency, quality or the ability to learn and to implement changes. Identifying enterprises’ motives for innovating and their importance is of help in examining the forces that drive innovation activities, such as competition and opportunities for entering new markets. 45. Innovation activities can be hampered by a number of factors. There may be reasons for not starting innovation activities at all, or there may be factors that slow such activities or affect them negatively. These include economic factors, such as high costs or lack of demand, factors specific to an enterprise, such as lack of skilled personnel or knowledge, and legal factors, such as regulations or tax rules. 46. The ability of enterprises to appropriate the gains from their innovation activities also affects innovation. If, for example, enterprises are unable to protect their innovations from imitation by competitors, they will have less incentive to innovate. On the other hand, if an industry functions well without formal protection, promoting such protection can slow the flow of knowledge and technology and lead to higher prices for goods and services. 4.3. The innovating firm and the impact of innovation 47. The innovative firm (defined in Chapter 3) is one that has introduced an innovation during the period under review. Such innovations need not have been a commercial success: many innovations fail. Innovative firms can be divided into those that have mainly developed innovations on their own or in co-operation with other firms or public research organisations, and those that have mainly innovated by adopting innovations (for example new equipment) developed by other firms. Innovative firms can also be distinguished by the types of innovations they have implemented; they may have implemented a new product or process, or they may have implemented a new marketing method or organisational change. 48. Impacts of innovations on firm performance range from effects on sales and market share to changes in productivity and efficiency. Important ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 19 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA impacts at industry and national levels are changes in international competitiveness and in total factor productivity, knowledge spillovers from firm-level innovations, and an increase in the amount of knowledge flowing through networks. 49. The outcomes of product innovations can be measured by the percentage of sales derived from new or improved products (see Chapter 7). Similar approaches can be used to measure the outcomes of other types of innovations. Additional indicators of the outcomes of innovation can be obtained through qualitative questions on the effects of innovations. 4.4. Linkages in the innovation process 50. The innovative activities of a firm partly depend on the variety and structure of its links to sources of information, knowledge, technologies, practices and human and financial resources. Each linkage connects the innovating firm to other actors in the innovation system: government laboratories, universities, policy departments, regulators, competitors, suppliers and customers. Innovation surveys can obtain information on the prevalence and importance of different types of linkages, and on the factors that influence the use of specific linkages. 51. Three types of external linkages are identified. Open information sources provide openly available information that does not require the purchase of technology or intellectual property rights, or interaction with the source. Acquisition of knowledge and technology results from purchases of external knowledge and capital goods (machinery, equipment, software) and services embodied with new knowledge or technology that do not involve interaction with the source. Innovation co-operation requires active co-operation with other firms or public research institutions on innovation activities (and may include purchases of knowledge and technology). 5. Some survey issues 5.1. Approach to data collection 5.2.1. Choice of the survey approach 52. There are two main approaches to collecting data on innovations: i) The “subject” approach starts from the innovative behaviour and activities of the firm as a whole. The idea is to explore the factors influencing the innovative behaviour of the firm (strategies, incentives and barriers to innovation) and the scope of various innovation activities, and above all to examine the outputs and effects of innovation. These surveys are designed to be representative of all 20 ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA industries so that the results can be grossed up and comparisons made between industries. ii) The “object” approach involves the collection of data about specific innovations (usually a “significant innovation” of some kind or a firm’s main innovation). The approach involves collecting some descriptive, quantitative and qualitative data about the particular innovation at the same time that data is sought about the firm. 53. From the point of view of current economic development, it is the differential success of firms that shapes economic outcomes and is of policy significance. This favours a subject-based approach, although innovation surveys can combine both approaches by including general questions on the firm and specific questions on a single innovation. It is the subject, the firm, that is important, and this is the approach has been chosen as the basis for these guidelines. 5.2.2. Survey methods 54. To achieve international comparability of subject-based innovation surveys, it is important to harmonise survey methods. Guidelines are given in Chapter 8. 55. The target population for innovation surveys concerns statistical units (innovators and non-innovators, R&D performers and non-R&D performers) in the business enterprise sector, including both goods-producing and services sectors. Innovative activities take place in small and medium-sized units as well as in large units. To capture innovation activities in these smaller units, the target population should include, at a minimum, all statistical units with at least ten employees. In the case of sample surveys, the sample frames should correspond as closely as possible to the target population. 56. In order to ensure a satisfactory response rate, the questionnaire should be as short as possible and questions and instructions should be clearly formulated. This may involve expressing the formal definitions in Chapter 3 in ways that are appropriate and meaningful to respondents in the industry concerned. 57. In the data collection phase, particular attention should be paid to checking the reliability and consistency of data and to follow-up or reminder procedures. International comparability of the resulting data will be further improved by adopting uniform methods of imputing missing values, weighting factors, methods for presenting results, etc. ISBN 92-64-01308-3 – © OECD/EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 2005 21 OSLO MANUAL: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING INNOVATION DATA 6. The relationship between the Oslo Manual and other international standards and related concepts 6.1. Manuals for the measurement of science and technology activities 58. Two basic families of S&T indicators are directly relevant to the measurement of innovation: resources devoted to R&D and patent statistics. In addition, bibliometrics and several other types of indicators provide complementary information, although information is not always available at the firm level. 59. R&D data are collected through national surveys according to the guidelines laid down in the Frascati Manual (OECD, 2002). These data have proved valuable in many studies: for example, the effects of R&D on productivity have been estimated by econometric techniques, at the country, sector and firm levels. These data have two main limitations. First, R&D is an input. Although it is obviously related to technical change, it does not measure it. Second, R&D does not encompass all the efforts of firms and governments in this area, as there are other sources of technical change, such as learning by doing, which are not covered by this narrow definition. 60. A patent is a legal property right to an invention, which is granted by national patent offices. A patent gives its owner sole rights (for a certain duration) to exploit the patented invention; at the same time it discloses the details of the patent as a way to allow broader social use of the discovery. Patent statistics are increasingly used in various ways as indicators of the output of research activities. The number of patents granted to a given firm or country may reflect its technological dynamism; examination of the growth of patent classes can give some indication of the direction of technological change. The drawbacks of patents as innovation indicators are well-known. Many innovations are not patented, and some are covered by multiple patents; many patents have no technological or economic value, and others have very high value (see the Patent Manual, OECD, 1994). 61. These two basic families of statistics are complemented by several others: statistics on scientific publications (bibliometrics), publications in trade and technical journals (“LBIO” or literature-based indicators of innovation output), skilled human resources, the technology balance of payments, globalisation indicators, and activity in high-technology sectors (investment, employment, external trade). Moreover, some information on innovat