Computer Evolution & Performance: PDF

Chapter 2 Computer Evolution and Performance  History of Computers First Generation: Vacuum Tubes ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer Designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania Started in 1943 – completed in 1946...

Chapter 2 Computer Evolution and Performance  History of Computers First Generation: Vacuum Tubes ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer Designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania Started in 1943 – completed in 1946 By John Mauchly and John Eckert World’s first general purpose electronic digital computer Army’s Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL) needed a way to supply trajectory tables for new weapons accurately and within a reasonable time frame Was not finished in time to be used in the war effort Its first task was to perform a series of calculations that were used to help determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb Continued to operate under BRL management until 1955 when it was disassembled Later Generations Micropocessors Vacuum Integrated ~1943 Tubes ~1947 Transistors ~1958 Circuits ~1971 ~1980 Now 1 Generation st 2 Generation nd 3 Generation rd 4 Generation th 5 Generation th  ENIAC Major Memory drawback consisted was the need Occupied of 20 Contained Capable 1500 Decimal accumulators, more of for manual Weighed square 140 kW rather each than 5000 programming 30 feet Power than capable 18,000 additions by setting tons of consumption binary of vacuum per switches floor machine holding tubes second and space a 10 digit plugging/ number unplugging cables John von Neumann EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) First publication of the idea was in 1945 Stored program concept Attributed to ENIAC designers, most notably the mathematician John von Neumann Program represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside the data IAS computer Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers Completed in 1952 Operate in binary mode Structure of von Neumann Machine  Was the major manufacturer of punched-card processing equipment Delivered its first electronic stored-program computer (701) Commercial computers in 1953 Intended primarily for scientific applications IBM Introduced 702 product in 1955 Hardware features made it suitable to business applications Series of 700/7000 computers established IBM as the overwhelmingly dominant computer manufacturer  History of Computers Second Generation: Transistors Smaller Cheaper Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube Is a solid state device made from silicon Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized computers were commercially available Later Generations Micropocessors Vacuum Integrated ~1943 Tubes ~ 1950 Transistors ~1958 Circuits ~1971 ~1943 Now 1 Generation st 2 Generation nd 3 Generation rd 4 Generation th 5 Generation th Second Generation Computers Introduced: Appearance of the Digital More complex arithmetic Equipment Corporation (DEC) and logic units and control units in 1957 The use of high-level PDP-1 was DEC’s first computer programming languages Provision of system software This began the mini-computer which provided the ability phenomenon that would to: become so prominent in the load programs third generation move data to peripherals and libraries perform common computations  History of Computers Third Generation: Integrated Circuits 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit Discrete component Single, self-contained transistor Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome The two most important members of the third generation were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8 Later Generations Micropocessors Vacuum Integrated ~1943 Tubes ~ 1950 Transistors ~1958 Circuits ~1971 ~1980 Now 1 Generation st 2 Generation nd 3 Generation rd 4 Generation th 5 Generation th Microelectronics Integrated Circuits A computer consists of gates, memory cells, and interconnections among these We can relate this to our four basic elements functions as follows: The gates and memory cells are Data storage – provided by memory cells constructed of simple digital electronic components Data processing – provided by gates Exploits the fact that such components Data movement – the paths among as transistors, resistors, and conductors components are used to move data can be fabricated from a semiconductor from memory to memory and from such as silicon memory through gates to memory Many transistors can be produced at the Control – the paths among same time on a single wafer of silicon components can carry control signals Transistors can be connected with a processor metallization to form circuits  Wafer, Chip, and Gate Relationship  Chip Growth Initially, a few gates or memory cells could be reliably manufactured and packaged together  Small Scale Integration (SSI). Moore’s Law 1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel Observed number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year Consequences of Moore’s law: The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the Computer The cost of 1970’s but has computer The electrical becomes sustained that rate path length is smaller and is Reduction in logic and Fewer ever since shortened, more power and memory interchip increasing convenient to cooling circuitry has use in a variety connections operating requirements fallen at a of speed dramatic rate environments  LSI Large Scale Integration Later (more than 1000 components per chip) Generations VLSI Very Large Scale Integration ULSI (more than 10.000 Ultra Large components per chip) Scale Semiconductor Memory Integration (more than 1 billion Microprocessors components per chip) Later Generations Micropocessors Vacuum Integrated ~1943 Tubes ~1950 Transistors ~1958 Circuits ~1971 ~1980 Now 1 Generation st 2 Generation nd 3 Generation rd 4 Generation th 5 Generation th  Microprocessors The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer processor 1971 Intel developed 4004 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip Birth of microprocessor 1972 Intel developed 8008 First 8-bit microprocessor 1974 Intel developed 8080 First general purpose microprocessor Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability  Microprocessor Speed Techniques built into contemporary processors include: Processor moves data or instructions into a conceptual pipe with all stages of the pipe Pipelining processing simultaneously  a processor can simultaneously work on multiple instructions Branch Processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched from memory and predicts which branches, or groups of instructions, are likely to prediction be processed next Data flow Processor analyzes which instructions are dependent on each other’s results, or data, to create an optimized schedule of analysis instructions Using branch prediction and data flow analysis, Speculative some processors speculatively execute instructions ahead of their actual appearance in execution the program execution, holding the results in temporary locations, keeping execution engines as busy as possible  Performance Balance Increase the Adjust the organization and number of bits that are retrieved at one architecture to compensate time by making DRAMs “wider” for the mismatch among the rather than “deeper” and by capabilities of the various using wide bus data paths components Reduce the Architectural examples frequency of memory access by include: incorporating increasingly complex and efficient cache structures between the processor and main memory Increase the Change the DRAM interconnect interface to make it bandwidth between more efficient by processors and including a cache memory by using or other buffering higher speed buses scheme on the and a hierarchy of DRAM chip buses to buffer and structure data flow Typical I/O Device Data Rates bit per second Improvements in Chip Organization and Architecture Increase hardware speed of processor Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate Propagation time for signals reduced Increase size and speed of caches Dedicating part of processor chip Cache access times drop significantly Change processor organization and architecture Increase effective speed of instruction execution Parallelism Problems with Clock Speed and Logic Density Power Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed Dissipating heat Resistor-Capacitor delay (RC delay) Speed at which electrons flow limited by resistance and capacitance of metal wires connecting them Delay increases as RC product increases Wire interconnects thinner, increasing resistance Wires closer together, increasing capacitance Memory latency Memory speeds is less than the processor speeds which delays the execution. Processor Trends  The use of multiple Multicore processors on the same chip provides the potential to increase performance without increasing the clock rate Strategy is to use two simpler processors on the chip rather than one more complex processor With two processors larger caches are justified As caches became larger it made performance sense to create two and then three levels of cache on a chip Many Integrated Core (MIC) Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) MIC GPU Leap in performance as well Core designed to perform as the challenges in parallel operations on graphics developing software to exploit data such a large number of cores Traditionally found on a plug-in The multicore and MIC graphics card, it is used to strategy involves a encode and render 2D and 3D homogeneous collection of graphics as well as process general purpose processors video on a single chip Used as vector processors for a variety of applications that require repetitive computations  Comparison between processors Core i3 Core i5 Core i7 Core i9 Number of cores 2-4 4-8 4-8 8-16 Clock speed 3.4 – 4.2 GHz 2.4 – 4.6 GHz 4.5 – 4.9 GHz 4.8 – 5.0 GHz Hyper-Threading 4 6 6/12 20/36 (efficient use of processor ressources) Turbo Boost 3.6GHz 4.6GHz 4.9GHz 5GHz Cache Memory 3-4 MB 4-9 MB 8-12 MB 16 MB Price ~100$ ~200-250$ ~250-400$ ~500-1500$  Overview ARM Results of decades of design effort on complex instruction set computers (CISCs) Intel Excellent example of CISC design Incorporates the sophisticated design principles once found only on mainframes and supercomputers An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced instruction set x86 Architecture computer (RISC) The ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of the most powerful and best designed RISC based systems on the market In terms of market share, Intel is ranked as CISC the number one maker of microprocessors for non-embedded systems RISC  8080 First general purpose microprocessor 8-bit machine with an 8-bit data path to memory Used in the first personal computer (Altair) 8086 16-bit machine Used an instruction cache, or queue First appearance of the x86 architecture x86 Evolution 8088 used in IBM’s first personal computer 80286 Enabled addressing a 16-MByte memory instead of just 1 MByte 80386 Intel’s first 32-bit machine First Intel processor to support multitasking 80486 More sophisticated cache technology and instruction pipelining Built-in math coprocessor x86 Evolution - Pentium Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II Pentium III Pentium 4 Superscalar Increased MMX Additional Includes Multiple superscalar technology floating-point additional instructions organization Designed instructions to floating-point executed in Aggressive specifically to support 3D and other parallel register process video, graphics enhancements renaming audio, and software for multimedia Branch graphics data prediction Data flow analysis Speculative execution x86 Evolution (continued) Core Instruction set First Intel x86 microprocessor architecture is with a dual core, referring to backward the implementation of two compatible with earlier versions processors on a single chip Core 2 X86 architecture Extends the architecture to 64 continues to bits dominate the processor Recent Core offerings have market outside up to 10 processors per chip of embedded systems General definition: Embedded Systems “A combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a dedicated function. In many cases, embedded systems are part of a larger system or product, as in the case of an antilock braking system in a car.”  Table 2.7 Examples of Embedded Systems and Their Markets  Figure 2.12 Possible Organization of an Embedded System  Acorn RISC Machine (ARM) Family of RISC-based Widely used in PDAs and microprocessors and other handheld devices microcontrollers Chips are the processors in Designs microprocessor and iPod and iPhone devices multicore architectures and licenses them to Most widely used embedded manufacturers processor architecture Chips are high-speed Most widely used processor processors that are known for architecture of any kind their small die size and low power requirements  ARM Design Categories ARM processors are designed to meet the needs of three system categories:  Secure applications  Smart cards, SIM cards, and payment terminals  Application platforms  Embedded real-time systems  Devices running open  Systems for storage, operating systems including automotive body and power- Linux, Palm OS, Symbian OS, train, industrial, and and Windows CE in wireless, networking applications consumer entertainment and digital imaging applications  System Clock The speed of a processor is dictated by the pulse frequency produced by the clock, measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).  Summary Computer Evolution and Performance Chapter 2 Multi-core First generation computers MICs Vacuum tubes Second generation computers GPGPUs Transistors Evolution of the Intel x86 Third generation computers Embedded systems Integrated circuits ARM evolution Performance designs Microprocessor speed Performance balance Chip organization and architecture