2_Conception_Pregnancy_and_Childbirth.pdf

9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Alan Boyle...

9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Alan Boyle Ph.D. Email: [email protected] Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Conception Conception is the union of a sperm cell and an ovum. On the one hand, conception is the beginning of a new human life. On the other hand, conception is the end of a fantastic voyage, in which the ovum, one of only several hundred that will mature and ripen during a women’s lifetime, unites with one of several hundred million sperm produced by a man in the average ejaculate. Ova carry X sex chromosomes. Sperm carry either X or Y Sex Chromosomes. If a sperm with an X chromosome fertilizes the ovum, the newly conceived embryo will normally develop as a female, with an XX chromosomal structure. If the sperm carries a Y chromosome. The child will normally develop as a male, with an XY Structure. In order to gain a greater appreciation of conception and childbirth we will examine the following TED Talk Medical visualization:Alexander Tsiaras: Conception to birth -- visualized - TED Talks https://www.ted.com/talks/alexander_tsiaras_conception_to_birth_visualized?language= en 1  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Conception A frightful Journey! The 200 to 400 million sperm in an average ejaculation may seem excessive, given that only one can fertilize an egg. However, Only 1 in 1000 will ever arrive in the vicinity of the ovum. Millions deposited in the vagina simply flow out of the women’s body, due to gravity. Normal vaginal acidity kills many more. Many surviving sperm swim against the current into the uterus. Surviving sperm may reach the fallopian tube 60 to 90 minutes after ejaculation. About half of the sperm end up in the wrong tube. Perhaps some 2000 sperm find their way into the right tube. Fewer still manage to swim the final 5 centimeters against currents generated by the cilia that line the tube. The journey of the sperm is guided by a chemical secreted by the ova that attracts the sperm. Because the sperm have odor receptors, it is conceivable that sperm attracted to ova through a variation of the sense of smell. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Conception Fertilization normally occurs in the fallopian tube. Ova contain chromosomes, proteins, fats and nutritious fluid and are surrounded by a gelatinous layer called the Zona pellucida. This layer must be penetrated if fertilization is to occur. Sperm that have completed the journey secrete an enzyme (hyaluronidase) which briefly thins the zona pellucida, enabling the sperm to penetrate. Once a sperm has entered the zona pellucida, it thickens, locking out other sperm. The corresponding chromosomes in the sperm and ovum line up opposite each other. Conceptions occurs as the chromosomes, from the sperm and ovum combine to form 23 new pairs of chromosomes, which carry a unique set of genetic instructions. 2  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technologies The term infertility isn’t usually applied until a couple has failed to conceive for more than a year. It can have significant psychological and emotional effects on individual and couples. Because the likelihood of infertility increases with age, the current elevated incidence of infertility is partly a result of a rise in the number of couples who have postponed childbearing until their 30’s and 40’s. It has been estimated that 15% of couples in Canada and the United States have fertility problems. About half of them eventually succeed in conceiving. There are many treatments options, which we will discuss later, ranging from drugs that stimulate ovulation to technologies such as in vitro fertilization. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Male Fertility Issues Although most concerns about fertility have traditionally centered on the women, about 40% of cases, the difficulty lies with men. In about 20% of cases, problems are found in both partners. The following are problems which have been identified in men: - Low sperm counts - Irregularly shaped sperm - Low sperm motility - Chronic diseases such as diabetes - Infections such as sexually transmitted diseases - Injuries to the testes - Autoimmune responses, in which the man produces antibodies that deactivate his sperm - A pituitary imbalance and / or thyroid disease 3  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Male Fertility Issues Problems in producing normal abundant sperm may be caused by genetic factors, advanced age, hormonal problems, diabetes, injuries to the testes, varicose veins in the scrotum, drugs, antihypertensive medication, environmental toxins, excess heat, and emotional stress. Low sperm count (or the absence of sperm) is the most common problem. Sperm counts of 40 to 150 million sperm per milliliter of semen are considered normal. A count of less than 20 million is generally regarded as low. Sometimes sperm count is adequate, but prostrate, hormonal, or other factors reduce motility or deform sperm. Motility can also be hampered by scar tissue from infections, which may prevent sperm from passing through the vas deferens or other parts of the male reproductive system. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Artificial Insemination The sperm of men with low sperm counts can be collected and quick frozen. The sperm from multiple ejaculations can then be injected into the women’s uterus at the time of ovulation. This is one variety of artificial insemination. The sperm of a man with low sperm motility can also be injected into his partner’s uterus, so that the sperm begin their journey closed to the fallopian tubes. Sperm from a donor can be used to artificially inseminate a women whose partner is completely infertile or has an extremely low sperm count. In this case the child will only have the genes of just one of the natural parents – the mother. A variation of artificial insemination has been used with some men with very low sperm count, immature sperm or immotile sperm. Immature sperm are removed from a testicle via a thin needle and directly injected into an egg in a laboratory dish. 4  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Female Fertility Issues Women encounter the following fertility issues: - Irregular ovulation, including failure to ovulate - Obstructions or malfunctions of the reproductive tract, often caused by infections or diseases involving the reproductive tract - Declining hormone levels of estrogen and progesterone that occur with aging and may prevent the ovum from becoming fertilized or remaining implanted in the uterus Between 10 and 15% of female infertility problems stem from failure to ovulate. Many factors can play roles, including hormonal irregularities, malnutrition, genetic factors, stress, and chronic disease. Failure to ovulate may occur in response to low levels of body fat. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Female Fertility Issues Ovulation can often be induced by fertility drugs such as clomiphene, which stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH, which in turn stimulates the maturation of ova. Another drug Pergonal, contains a high concentration of FSH which directly stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles. These drugs have been known to cause multiple births by stimulating more than one ovum to ripen during a month. Local infections that scar the fallopian tubes and other organs impede the passage of sperm or ova. In endometriosis, endometrial tissues, which are normally found in the lining of the uterus, implant and grow elsewhere. When they develop on the surface of the ovaries or fallopian tubes, they may block passage of the ova or impair conception. 5  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth In vitro Fertilization When Louise Brown was born in England in 1978, after being conceived in vitro fertilization (IVF), she made headlines around the world. Louise was the first test-tube baby. Conception took place in a laboratory dish and the embryo was implanted in the mother’s uterus, where it developed to term. Before a woman undergoes in vitro fertilization, she is given fertility drugs to stimulate her ova to ripen. The ripe ova are then surgically removed from one of her ovaries, and placed in a laboratory dish with the man’s sperm. Fertilized ova are then injected back into the women’s uterus where they become implanted in the uterine wall. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth In vitro Fertilization Variations in IVF: Gift In gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), sperm and ova are inserted into the fallopian tube for fertilization. Conception occurs in a fallopian tube rather than in a laboratory dish. This process most closely approximates the natural process of fertilization. Zift Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) involves a combination of IVF and GIFT. Sperm and ova are combined in a laboratory dish. After fertilization, the zygote is placed in the mother’s fallopian tube, to make the journey to the uterus for implantation. 6  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth In vitro Fertilization Variations in IVF: Donor IV Donor IVF is a variation of the IVF procedure. The ovum is taken from another woman, fertilized and then injected in the uterus or fallopian tube of the intended mother. Embryonic Transfer Embryonic transfer can be used with women who don’t produce ova of their own. A female volunteer is artificially inseminated by the male partner of the infertile women. Five days later the embryo is removed from the volunteer and inserted in the uterus of the mother to be, where it becomes implanted. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection Intracytoplasmic sperm injection can be used when a man has too few sperm for IVF, or when IVF fails. A sperm cell is injected directly into an ovum. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth In vitro Fertilization Variations in IVF: Surrogate Motherhood A surrogate mother is artificially inseminated by the partner of an infertile women or by one of two men who are a couple. She carries the baby to term and then turns the baby over to the couple. The process is legal in Canada as long as it does not involve financial remuneration. 7  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Pregnancy In this section we will review the biological and psychological aspects of pregnancy: signs of pregnancy, prenatal development, complications, and the influences of prenatal development. Early effects of Pregnancy Just a few days after conception, a woman may note tenderness in her breasts. Hormonal stimulation of the mammary glands may make her breasts more sensitive and cause sensations of tingling and fullness. The term morning sickness refers to the nausea, food aversions, and vomiting a woman may experience during pregnancy. It is actually not a sickness, but rather a perfectly normal part of pregnancy. The morning sickness usually subsides by about the twelfth week of pregnancy. Additionally, pregnant women may experience greater than normal fatigue during the early weeks, sleeping longer and falling asleep more readily than usual. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Pregnancy Miscarriage In most cases of miscarriage, a specific cause is not identified. Known causes include chromosomal defects in the fetus and abnormalities of the placenta or uterus. Miscarriage is more common among older women. About three in four miscarriages occur in the first seven weeks. 8  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Pregnancy Prenatal Development The onset of pregnancy can be dated from the onset of the last menstrual cycle before conception, which makes the normal gestation period 280 days. Alternatively, pregnancy can be dated from the date at which fertilization is assumed to have occurred, which normally corresponds to two weeks after the beginning of the women’s last menstrual cycle. In this case the normal gestation period is 266 days. It may also be dated through an ultrasound scan during the first trimester. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth The Germinal Stage Within 36 hours of conception, the zygote divides into two cells. It then divides repeatedly, becoming 32 cells within another 36 hours as it continues its journey to the uterus. It takes the zygote three to four days to reach the uterus. This mass of dividing cells then wanders about the uterus for another 3 to 4 days before it implants itself into the uterine wall. Implantation takes another week. This period, from conception to implantation is called the germinal stage or the period of the ovum. Several days into the germinal stage, the cell mass takes the form of a fluid-filled ball of cells, which is called the blastocyst. Already cell differentiation has begun. Cells begin to separate into groups that will eventually become different structures. 9  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth The embryonic Stage The period from implantation to about the eighth week of development is called the embryonic stage. The major organ systems of the body begin to differentiate during this stage. Development of the embryo follows two trends: cephalocaudal growth and proximodistal growth. Growth of the head (the cephalic region) takes precedence over growth of the lower parts of the body. The growth of the organs systems that lie close to the axis takes precedence over the growth of those that lie farther away, towards the extremities. Additionally mass-to-specific development in fetal and infantile development, progression from gross, random movements involving the whole body to more refined movements of body parts. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth The embryonic Stage The embryo- and later the fetus- develops within a protective environment in the mother’s uterus called the amniotic sac, which is surrounded by a clear membrane. The embryo or fetus is suspended within the sac, in amniotic fluid. The fluid acts like a shock absorber, cushioning the embryo. Nutrients and waste products are exchanged between mother and embryo through a mass of tissue called placenta. Unique in origin, the placenta develops from material supplied by both the mother and the embryo. The fetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord. Ultimately, the placenta passes from the women’s body after delivery. For this reason, it’s also called the afterbirth. 10  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth The Fetal Stage The fetal stage begins by the ninth week and continues until birth. By about the ninth or tenth week, the fetus begins to respond to the outside world by turning in the direction of external stimulation. By the end of the first trimester, the major organ systems, fingers, toes, and external genitals are formed, the gender can be visually determined and the eyes are clearly distinguishable. Near the end of the second trimester, the fetus approaches the stage of viability. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Maternal Diet Malnutrition in the mother can adversely affect fetal development and result in a low birthweight baby. Pregnant women who are adequately nourished are more likely to deliver babies of average or above average size. Their infants are also less likely to develop colds and serious respiratory disorders. In contrast maternal obesity is linked with a higher risk of stillbirth. 11  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Maternal Diseases and Disorders Pre-existing conditions in the mother, such as diabetes, can have significant impacts on prenatal growth and development. Environmental influences and agents that cause permanent, harmful structural alterations of the embryo or fetus are called teratogens. They include alcohol the metals lead and mercury, radiation, and disease causing organisms, such as viruses and bacteria. Some extremely small organism, such as those that cause syphilis, measles, mumps, and chicken pox can penetrate through the placenta and affect the fetus. Substances produced by the mother’s body, including Rh-positive antibodies can also affect the fetus. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Critical Periods of Vulnerability The times at which exposure to particular teratogens can cause the greatest harm are termed critical periods of vulnerability. Critical periods correspond to the times when the structures most affected by the teratogens are developing. Example: Thalidomide is a drug that was introduced on to the market on October 1, 1957 in West Germany. Thalidomide soon became a drug prescribed to pregnant women to combat symptoms associated with morning sickness. In West Germany, thalidomide could be bought without a prescription. When taken during the first trimester of pregnancy, thalidomide prevented the proper growth of the fetus resulting in horrific birth defects ("thalidomide embryopathy") in thousands of children around the world. When taken, mainly in first world countries, between day 20 to 36 after fertilisation children were born with limb and other defects. In the late 1950's and early 1960's these children became known as "Thalidomide babies". 12  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Maternal (and Paternal) Drug Use Although most of the attention on drug use during pregnancy is focused upon the mother, a father’s use of certain drugs may also impact negatively on the fetus. One issue in this regard relates to the potential effects of a drugs influence upon the genetic material in a man’s sperm. Drugs consumed by a pregnant woman may be metabolized in the placenta and then transmitted to the fetus. When using drugs (narcotics), there is a greater risk of birth defects, low birth weight, and a higher rate of death in infants or stillbirths. The chemicals in drugs can cause an addiction in the babies once they are born. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Maternal (and Paternal) Drug Use Alcohol A mother who drinks during pregnancy increases the risk of birth defects, infant mortality, sensory and motor problems and mental retardation in her child. Nearly 40% of children whose mothers drink during pregnancy develop fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS is a cluster of symptoms typified by developmental lags and characteristic facial features, such as underdeveloped upper jaws, flattened noses and widely spaced eyes. Infants with FAS are often smaller than average and smaller than average brains. FAS has been found among children of mothers who drank only 60 milliliters of alcohol a day during the first trimester. Research indicates that there is no known safe dose of alcohol that can be consumed during pregnancy. The best course of action for pregnant individuals is to abstain from alcohol entirely throughout the entire pregnancy. This recommendation is based on extensive research that has consistently shown the potential harm of alcohol to the developing fetus. 13  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Maternal (and Paternal) Drug Use Cigarette Smoking Cigarette smoke contains chemicals such carbon monoxide and the stimulant nicotine, which are transmitted to the fetus. It also lessens the amount of oxygen received by the fetus. Low Birth Weight: Smoking during pregnancy is a known risk factor for delivering a baby with low birth weight. Nicotine and other chemicals in tobacco can restrict blood flow to the placenta, reducing the oxygen and nutrients available to the developing fetus. Preterm Birth: Maternal smoking increases the risk of preterm birth, which is associated with health complications for the newborn. Respiratory Problems: Babies born to mothers who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to have respiratory problems, such as wheezing, asthma, and an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Developmental Delays: Some studies suggest that maternal smoking may be associated with developmental delays in areas like speech and motor skills. Behavioral and Cognitive Effects: Prenatal exposure to nicotine has been linked to behavioral and cognitive problems in children, including attention deficits and learning difficulties. Increased Risk of Stillbirth: Smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of stillbirth, which is the loss of a baby before birth. The combination of smoking and drinking alcohol places the child at a greater risk for low birth weight than either substance alone. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Additionally, 1. Certain Medications: Some medications, when taken during pregnancy, can pose teratogenic risks. For instance, certain anticonvulsant medications have been associated with neural tube defects, and some antibiotics have been linked to hearing loss in the baby. 2. Illicit Drugs: Illicit drugs, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, can cross the placenta and harm the developing fetus. Exposure to these drugs may lead to preterm birth, low birth weight, developmental delays, and behavioral problems. 14  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Additionally, 3. Environmental Toxins: Exposure to certain environmental toxins, like lead, mercury, and some pesticides, can interfere with fetal development. Lead exposure, for example, can lead to intellectual disabilities and behavioral problems in children. 4. Infections: Certain infections during pregnancy, such as rubella (German measles), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and toxoplasmosis, can lead to severe birth defects or developmental delays in the baby. 5. Radiation: High levels of radiation exposure during pregnancy can increase the risk of birth defects and developmental issues in the fetus Quiz 15  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Part 2 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Early in the ninth month of pregnancy, the fetus’s head settles in the pelvis. This shift is called dropping or lightening. The women may actual feel lighter because there is less pressure on her diaphragm. Labour usually begins within a day of the rupture of the amniotic sac. It specifically begins with the onset of regular uterine contractions. 16  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Childbirth begins with the onset of labour and has three phases: In the first phase, uterine contractions efface and dilate the cervix to about 10 centimeters in diameter, so the baby can pass through. Stretching of the cervix causes most of the pain of childbirth. The first stage may last from a couple of hours to more than a day. Twelve to 24 hours of labor is considered about average. The initial contractions are usually mild and widely spaced, at about intervals of 10 to 20 minutes. They may last 20 to 40 seconds. As time passes, contractions become more frequent and regular, longer, and stronger. Transition is the process that occurs when the cervix becomes almost fully dilated and the baby’s head begins to move into the vagina, or birth canal. Contractions usually come quickly at this stage. Transition can last up to 30 minutes and is often accompanied by nausea, chills, and intense pain. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Childbirth begins with the onset of labour and has three phases: The second stage of childbirth begins after transition, when the cervix is fully dilated, and the baby begins to move into the birth canal. Each contraction propels the baby farther along the birth canal. When the baby’s head becomes visible at the vaginal opening, it is said to have crowned. Typically, the baby fully emerges a few minutes after crowning. Full emergence ends the second stage of childbirth which last from a few minutes to a few hours. Sometimes an episiotomy is performed on the mother when the baby’s head has crowned. An episiotomy is an incision made in the perineum — the tissue between the vaginal opening and the anus — during childbirth. Although an episiotomy was once a routine part of childbirth, that's no longer the case. This procedure prevents random tearing of the perineum. 17  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Childbirth begins with the onset of labour and has three phases: The third or placental stage of childbirth can last from a few minutes to an hour or more. During this stage, the placenta is expelled and the uterus begins the process of contraction. As the head emerges, the doctor may use suction aspiration to clear away mucus from its mouth and prevent obstruction of the breathing passageway. Once the baby is breathing adequately, the doctor clamps and severs the umbilical cord. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MF1D3TLYPEw Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Methods of Childbirth Until the twentieth century, childbirth usually happened at home and involved the mother, a midwife, family, friends. Today women in Canada typically give birth in hospitals attended by physicians who use surgical instruments and anesthetics to protect them and their babies from infections, complications and pain. 18  9/20/2024 Developmentalists recognize that there are various methods of childbirth, each with its own implications for the physical and emotional well-being of the mother and the newborn. These methods are influenced by medical, cultural, and personal preferences, and they often vary based on the health of the mother and baby, the healthcare setting, and individual choices. Below are the primary methods of childbirth as identified by developmentalists: 1. Vaginal Birth (Natural Childbirth) Description: This is the most common method of childbirth, where the baby is delivered through the birth canal (vagina) without the need for surgical intervention. Pain Management Options: Vaginal birth can be either medicated (with pain relief, such as an epidural) or unmedicated (natural childbirth). Some women choose to use breathing techniques, relaxation methods, and support from a doula or birthing partner to manage pain without drugs. 2. Cesarean Section (C-Section) Description: A Cesarean section is a surgical procedure in which the baby is delivered through an incision in the mother's abdomen and uterus. This method is used when a vaginal delivery might pose risks to the mother or baby. Reasons for C-Section: Common reasons include breech position (baby is not head-down), fetal distress, multiple births (twins, triplets), placenta previa (where the placenta covers the cervix), or a prior C-section. 19  9/20/2024 4. Water Birth Description: Water birth involves the mother giving birth in a tub of warm water. The mother can spend part or all of labor in the water, and the baby is delivered in the water. Advantages: Water births can promote relaxation and pain relief. The buoyancy of the water can also make it easier for the mother to move during labor. Home Birth Description: Home birth involves delivering the baby at home, often with the assistance of a midwife or trained birth attendant. This method is typically chosen by women who want a more natural, low-intervention birth experience. Advantages: Home birth allows for greater control over the birthing environment, more personalized care, and less medical intervention. 20  9/20/2024 8. Lamaze Method Description: The Lamaze method emphasizes breathing techniques, relaxation exercises, and education to help manage labor and promote a positive birth experience. Advantages: The focus is on empowering women with knowledge and tools to cope with labor, reducing the need for medical interventions. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Methods of Childbirth Prepared Childbirth (The Lamaze Method) The Lamaze method of childbirth is a popular approach to natural childbirth preparation that focuses on empowering women to have a more active and informed role during labor and delivery. It was developed by Dr. Ferdinand Lamaze, a French obstetrician, in the 1950s and gained popularity in the United States in the 1970s. The Lamaze method emphasizes the following principles: Education: The foundation of Lamaze is education. It encourages expectant parents to learn about the birthing process, the various stages of labor, and the possible interventions and choices available to them. This knowledge helps reduce fear and anxiety associated with childbirth. 21  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Methods of Childbirth Prepared Childbirth (The Lamaze Method) Controlled Breathing: Lamaze promotes the use of controlled breathing techniques to help women manage pain and stress during labor. These breathing techniques are designed to promote relaxation and reduce tension. Relaxation: Relaxation techniques, including deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and visualization, are taught to help mothers stay calm and focused during labor. Support: The Lamaze method encourages the presence of a supportive birth partner, such as a partner, friend, or doula, to provide emotional and physical support during labor. Movement and Positioning: Lamaze encourages women to move and change positions during labor to find what is most comfortable for them and to aid the progress of labor. Mobility can help the baby move down the birth canal more easily. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Methods of Childbirth Prepared Childbirth (The Lamaze Method) Continuous Support: Continuous support from a birth companion, doula, or a healthcare provider is considered important for providing emotional support and advocating for the mother's wishes during labor and delivery. It's important to note that the Lamaze method does not advocate for a specific "right" way to give birth but rather provides tools and information to help individuals make informed choices that align with their preferences and values. Lamaze classes are available to expectant parents to teach these principles and prepare them for childbirth. Many individuals find the Lamaze method to be a valuable resource for achieving a more natural and empowered birth experience. Lamaze also educates women so that when interventions are needed, or pain relief medication is desired, women are able to give true informed consent. 22  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Methods of Childbirth Caesarean Section In a Caesarean section, the baby is delivered via surgery, rather than naturally, through the vagina. In a Caesarean section the women are anaesthetized, and incisions are made in the abdomen and uterus, so the surgeon can remove the baby. The incisions are then sewn up and the mother can begin walking, often on the same day, although generally with some discomfort for a while. C-sections is mot likely to be advised when normal delivery is difficult or threatens the health of the mother or the child. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth The Postpartum Period According to developmentalists, the postpartum period, which refers to the time immediately following childbirth (usually defined as the first six weeks), is crucial for both the mother and the newborn in several developmental aspects. This period holds significance for the physical, emotional, and social adjustments that occur after birth. Key aspects of its significance include: 23  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth 1. Physical Recovery of the Mother: Physical Healing: After childbirth, the mother's body undergoes numerous changes as it returns to its pre-pregnancy state. This includes healing from any birth-related injuries, the shrinking of the uterus, and hormonal fluctuations. Breastfeeding and Lactation: For mothers who breastfeed, the postpartum period is when lactation is established. The production of breast milk is vital for the newborn’s nutrition and immune system development. Sleep Deprivation and Fatigue: Physical exhaustion can affect the mother’s ability to recover and function, which may influence her overall health and well-being. 2. Emotional and Psychological Adjustment: Postpartum Depression (PPD): The postpartum period is a time of significant psychological adjustment, and some women may experience postpartum depression due to hormonal changes, stress, and fatigue. Developmentalists recognize this as a critical mental health issue, as it can affect both the mother’s well-being and her bonding with the baby. Mood Swings and Baby Blues: Many women experience mood swings, irritability, and anxiety during this period. These emotional shifts can be a normal response to the hormonal and lifestyle changes but may require attention if they persist or worsen. 24  9/20/2024 Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth The Postpartum Period – Postpartum Depression However, one in five or ten women encounters a more serious mood disorder called postpartum depression (PPD). PPD begins within 4 weeks after delivery and may linger for weeks or months. PPD is characterized by severe sadness, feelings of hopelessness and helplessness, feelings of worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, change in appetite and sleep patterns. There can also be severe fluctuations in mood from depression to elation and back to depression. Some women show obsessive concerns over the well-being of their child at this time. Women who experience PPD may benefit from psychotherapy or medications that increase estrogen levels or antidepressants. Many women recover from PPD on their own. Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Childbirth Postpartum Depression Impact on the Mother: PPD can have a profound impact on the mother's mental and emotional well-being. Symptoms of PPD may include persistent feelings of sadness, anxiety, irritability, and a loss of interest in activities. It can interfere with her ability to care for her baby, bond with the infant, and engage in daily activities. Impact on the Baby: PPD can also affect the baby's development and well-being. A mother's depression can disrupt the mother-infant bond and negatively impact the baby's emotional and cognitive development. Babies of mothers with PPD may have difficulties with attachment and may be at a higher risk of developmental delays. Long-Term Effects: If left untreated, PPD can have long-term consequences for both the mother and child. For the mother, it can increase the risk of chronic depression and other mental health disorders. For the child, it can lead to developmental, emotional, and behavioral problems. The good news is that PPD is treatable. Various treatment options are available, including psychotherapy, medication, support groups, and lifestyle changes. Early intervention is essential for the best outcomes. 25  9/20/2024 3. Mother-Infant Bonding: Attachment and Bonding: Developmentalists emphasize the importance of early bonding between the mother and infant. Skin-to-skin contact, breastfeeding, and responsive caregiving help establish secure attachment, which is essential for the infant’s emotional and social development. Sensitive Period for Attachment: The postpartum period is seen as a sensitive period for the development of attachment behaviors. The mother’s responsiveness to the baby’s needs (e.g., feeding, comforting) plays a role in forming a strong emotional bond, which can influence the child’s long-term socio-emotional development. 4. Infant Development: Newborn's Adaptation to the Outside World: The postpartum period is critical for the newborn's transition from the womb to the external environment. Developmentalists focus on how infants adapt to the new conditions (e.g., breathing, temperature regulation, feeding) and how they rely on caregivers to meet their basic needs. Cognitive and Sensory Stimulation: The postpartum period is also when the infant begins to engage with their surroundings. Sensory experiences, such as touch, sight, and sound, are essential for brain development and cognitive growth during this time. 26  9/20/2024 5. Family and Social Adjustments: Parental Roles and Relationships: Developmentalists note that the postpartum period often involves significant changes in family dynamics and relationships. Both parents must adjust to their new roles, which can bring about stress, shifts in responsibilities, and changes in the marital relationship. Support Systems: A supportive environment is critical during the postpartum period. Extended family, healthcare professionals, and social networks can all play a role in helping the mother and family adjust to life with a newborn. 6. Health and Well-Being of Both Mother and Infant: Monitoring for Health Complications: The postpartum period is a time when both the mother and the newborn are closely monitored for any health complications, such as infections, hemorrhage, or feeding difficulties in the baby. Physical Growth of the Infant: During this period, the infant experiences rapid growth and development. Weight gain, motor skill development, and cognitive responses are key areas of focus for healthcare providers and developmentalists. 27  9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders Genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities in an individual's genetic material, such as mutations or deletions in specific genes. Genetic disorders can have a wide range of impacts on a developing baby, depending on the specific disorder, its severity, and when it manifests. Developmentalists, who study human development across the lifespan, are particularly concerned with understanding how genetic disorders can affect prenatal and early postnatal development. Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders- General Effects: Physical Abnormalities: Genetic disorders can lead to physical abnormalities that affect the baby's appearance, organ development, and overall health. These may include structural abnormalities, growth deficiencies, or malformations of various body systems. Cognitive and Intellectual Disabilities: Some genetic disorders can result in cognitive and intellectual disabilities. These conditions may affect the baby's ability to learn, communicate, and perform daily tasks as they grow. Behavioral and Emotional Challenges: Certain genetic disorders can impact the baby's behavior and emotional development. These can manifest as behavioral disorders, mood disorders, or difficulties with social interaction. Health Problems: Genetic disorders can predispose a baby to a range of health problems, such as heart defects, respiratory issues, gastrointestinal disorders, and immune system deficiencies. These health issues may require medical intervention and ongoing care. 28  9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders Developmental Delays: Genetic disorders can cause developmental delays in areas such as motor skills, language development, and socialization. Babies with these delays may reach developmental milestones later than their typically developing peers. Life Expectancy: The severity of a genetic disorder can significantly impact a baby's life expectancy. Some genetic disorders are associated with a shortened lifespan, while others may have less severe effects. Quality of Life: Genetic disorders can influence the overall quality of life for the baby and their family. Families may need to adapt their lifestyles, seek specialized medical care, and provide additional support to meet the baby's unique needs. Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders It's important to note that the impact of a genetic disorder can vary widely from one individual to another, even if they share the same genetic condition. This variation is influenced by factors such as the specific genetic mutation involved, early intervention and treatment, access to healthcare, and family support. Developmentalists play a crucial role in researching and understanding how genetic disorders affect development and in providing guidance to families and healthcare providers on how to support babies with genetic disorders to reach their full potential and improve their quality of life. Early diagnosis, intervention, and access to appropriate medical and therapeutic services are often key factors in helping babies with genetic disorders thrive despite their challenges 29  9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders Here are some examples of genetic disorders and the potential damage: 1. Cystic Fibrosis (Recessive Disorder): Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the CFTR gene. It affects the lungs, digestive system, and other organs by causing the production of thick, sticky mucus, leading to breathing difficulties, frequent lung infections, and digestive problems. To have cystic fibrosis, a person must inherit two copies of the defective gene, one from each parent. Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders 2. Huntington's Disease (Dominant Disorder): Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the HTT gene. It leads to the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain, resulting in physical, cognitive, and emotional changes. Symptoms usually start to appear in adulthood, but there is a juvenile form that affects children and adolescents. A person only needs to inherit one copy of the mutated gene from either parent to develop the disease. 30  9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders 3. Hemophilia (Sex-Linked Recessive Disorder): Hemophilia is a group of bleeding disorders caused by mutations in the genes responsible for producing blood clotting factors. These mutations result in impaired blood clotting, leading to excessive bleeding even from minor injuries. Hemophilia is usually inherited through the X chromosome. Since it is a recessive disorder on the X chromosome, it primarily affects males, as they have only one X chromosome (XY), whereas females have two X chromosomes (XX) and are typically carriers of the gene. Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Genetic disorders 4. Down Syndrome (Chromosomal Disorder): Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). It leads to intellectual disabilities, distinct facial features, and other developmental challenges. The majority of cases result from random errors during the formation of egg or sperm cells and are not inherited. However, in a small percentage of cases, it may be inherited from a parent who carries a chromosomal translocation. 31  9/20/2024 Developmental Psychology - Conception, Pregnancy and Childbirth Developmentalists, who study human development across the lifespan, often identify several genetic risks that can affect fetuses during pregnancy. These risks arise from abnormalities or mutations in genes and chromosomes that can impact the developing fetus in various ways. Some additional key genetic risks include: 1.Chromosomal Abnormalities: 1. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21): A condition where there is an extra copy of chromosome 21. It leads to developmental delays, intellectual disability, and physical characteristics such as a flat facial profile and heart defects. 2. Turner Syndrome: This occurs when a female has only one X chromosome instead of two (45, X). It can result in short stature, infertility, and heart or kidney defects. 3. Klinefelter Syndrome: Males with an extra X chromosome (47, XXY) may have reduced testosterone levels, delayed development, and fertility issues. 2) Single-Gene Disorders: Cystic Fibrosis: Caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, this disorder leads to the production of thick mucus that affects the lungs and digestive system. Sickle Cell Anemia: A mutation in the gene that codes for hemoglobin results in red blood cells becoming sickle-shaped, leading to pain, organ damage, and an increased risk of infections. Tay-Sachs Disease: A fatal genetic disorder that primarily affects the nervous system. It is caused by a deficiency of a specific enzyme that leads to the accumulation of harmful substances in the brain. 32  9/20/2024 3) Multifactorial Inheritance: Many genetic risks arise from a combination of genetic predispositions and environmental factors. Conditions like cleft palate, heart defects, and neural tube defects (such as spina bifida) often result from both genetic and environmental influences. 4 ) Autosomal Dominant and Recessive Disorders: Autosomal Dominant Disorders: A single copy of a mutated gene can cause a disorder (e.g., Huntington’s disease). Autosomal Recessive Disorders: Both parents must carry and pass on the mutated gene for the child to be affected (e.g., Phenylketonuria (PKU)). 33  9/20/2024 5) X-Linked Disorders: Disorders linked to mutations in genes on the X chromosome often affect males more severely since they have only one X chromosome. Examples include hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. 34