Quantitative Research Lecture Notes PDF

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH) LECTURE NOTES- 1ST QUARTER IA. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to investigate observable phenomena. A phenomenon is any existing or obser...

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH) LECTURE NOTES- 1ST QUARTER IA. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to investigate observable phenomena. A phenomenon is any existing or observable fact or situation that we want to unearth further or understand. It is scientific for the fact that it uses a scientific method in designing and collecting numerical data. Once data is collected, it will undergo statistical analysis like Pearson’s r, t- test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for analysis. Since data is analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the data obtained must be numerical and quantifiable, hence its name quantitative research. Numerical data are generally easier to collect than descriptions or phrases used in qualitative research. Information like student’s grades in different subjects, number of hours of engagement in social media platforms of teens, percentage of consumers who prefer the color blue for soap packaging, average daily Covid-19 patient recovery per region are just few examples of research data expressed in numbers. Some data on the other hand, are not directly countable and thus require conversion from non-numerical information into numerical information. For instance, determining which brand of canned sardines is the best choice for consumers in terms of taste cannot be expressed in numbers unless we do a survey using a rating scale. Several forms of rating scales are available, e.g., the Likert scale that we can use to quantify data. Usually, they come in a selection of numbers with a corresponding meaning for each choice, for example: 1= tastes very good, 2 = satisfactory, or 3 = undesirable. Numerical choices convert texts into numbers so the researcher can perform mathematical operations for faster, more accurate, and more objective analysis. Quantitative research is commonly used in natural sciences research problems because of the following characteristics: 1. LARGE SAMPLE SIZE. To obtain more meaningful statistical result, the data must come from a large sample size. 2. OBJECTIVE. Data gathering and analysis of results are done accurately, objectively,and are unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and personal guesses. 3. VISUAL RESULT PRESENTATION. Data is numerical, which makes presentation through graphs, charts, and tables possible and for better conveyance and interpretation. 4. FASTER DATA ANALYSIS. The use of a statistical tools give way for a less time consuming data analysis. 5. GENERALIZED DATA. Data taken from a sample can be applied to the population if sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random samples were taken. 6. FAST DATA COLLECTION. Depending on the type of data needed, collection can be quick and easy. Quantitative research uses standardized research instruments that allow the researcher to collect data from a large sample size efficiently. For instance, a single survey form can be administered simultaneously to collect various measurable characteristics like age, gender, socio-economic status, etc. 7. RELIABLE DATA. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a sample as a representative of the population, making it more credible and reliable for policy making and decision making. 8. REPLICATION. The Quantitative method can be repeated to verify findings enhancing its validity, free from false or immature conclusions. The following are the strengths of quantitative research. 1. Quantitative research can be replicated or repeated. 2. Findings are generalizable to the population. 3. Conclusive establishment of cause and effect 4. Numerical and quantifiable data can be used to predict outcomes 5. Fast and easy data analysis using statistical software. 6. Fast and easy data gathering 7. Very objective 8. Validity and reliability can be established. The following are the disadvantages of quantitative research: 1. It lacks the necessary data to explore a problem or concept in depth. 2. It does not provide comprehensive explanation of human experiences. 3. Some information cannot be described by numerical data such as feelings, and beliefs. 4. The research design is rigid and not very flexible. 5. The participants are limited to choose only from the given responses. 6. The respondents may tend to provide inaccurate responses. 7. A large sample size makes data collection more costly CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Write TRUE if the statement describes quantitative research and FALSE if it is incorrect. 1. Quantitative data can be presented using tables and graphs. 2. The quantitative research study cannot be replicated or repeated because it is unique in every case. 3. Quantitative research includes methodologies such as questionnaires, structured observations or experiments. 4. Quantitative data are in the form of numbers and analyzed statistically. 5. Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of narratives and or/open-ended observations through methodologies such as interviews, focus groups or ethnographies. IB. KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is a broad spectrum that it can be classified into smaller and more specific kinds: descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental. Descriptive Research. This type of quantitative research is used to explain the current state of a variable or topic. It can answer what, where, when, and how, but not why questions (those are answered in qualitative research). The researcher does not control or manipulate the variables. They just observe and measure them.The goal of descriptive research is to understand the current status of an identified variable. Descriptive research is used to identify categories and trends, form hypotheses, arrange comparisons, confirm existing phenomena, and outline sample characteristics. Descriptive research examples:  An athletic shoe brand conducts a demographic survey to understand the shoe purchasing trends among customers in New York.  Find out where young adults aged 16-20 get their online news with a survey listing popular news sites.  Discover how often working people take vacations by sending surveys asking how many vacations the target population has taken in the last year. Correlational Research. The correlational research method examines the relationships between different subjects and variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. It is focused on relationships between fixed variables. Correlational research relies on the scientific method and hypotheses. The goal of correlational research is to identify variables that have some sort of relationship to the extent that one creates a change in the other. Correlational research is used to gather data quickly from natural settings so you can generalize findings to a real-life situation. Correlational research examples:  Find out if there is a relationship between Facebook shares of your website link and a higher Google ranking.  Discover if there is a correlation between gender and class participation in college classes by observing seminars, tracking the frequency and duration of students’ contributions, and categorizing them by gender.  Find out if videos on your website improve dwell time and increase conversions. Quasi-experimental Research. In a quasi-experimental quantitative research design, the researcher attempts to establish a cause-effect relationship from one variable to another. For example, a researcher may determine that high school students who study for an hour every day are more likely to earn high grades on their tests. To develop this finding, the researcher would first measure the length of time that the participants study each day (variable one) and then their test scores (variable two). In this study, one of the variables is independent, and the other is dependent. The value of the independent variable is not influenced by the other variables; the value of the dependent variable, however, is wholly dependent on changes in the independent variable. In the example above, the length of study time is the independent variable, and the test scores are the dependent variable. A quasi-experimental study is not a true experimental study because it does not randomly assign study participants to groups. Rather, it assigns them to groups specifically because they have a certain attribute or meet non-random criteria. Control groups are not strictly mandatory, although researchers still often use them. Quasi-experimental research examples:  Your hypothesis is that sixth-grade students who attend an after school program will achieve better grades. You choose two similar groups of sixth-graders who attend different schools—one with an after school program and one without.  Find the difference in wages between men and women with a comparative study of wages earned by both genders across various occupations and locations.  The Oregon Health Insurance Experiment famously expanded Medicaid (the US low-income public insurance program) to more low-income adults by random lottery. Researchers were able to examine the program's impact by using the eligible adults not chosen as a control group and the enrolled adults as a randomly assigned treatment group. Experimental Research. Experimental quantitative research design utilizes the scientific approach. It establishes procedures that allow the researcher to test a hypothesis and to systematically and scientifically study causal relationships among variables. All experimental quantitative research studies include three basic steps: 1. The researcher measures the variables. 2. The researcher influences or intervenes with the variables in some way. 3. The researcher measures the variables again to ascertain how the intervention affected the variables. Experimental research examples:  Your company wants to market your new product. You choose to run two different versions of your advertisement as part of your marketing plan. You track the performance of each ad to determine which is the most effective.  You take your chosen advertisement and show it to two different demographic groups to see which groups produce the best results.  You create multiple prototypes of a product and test performance and capability to choose the most effective design. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Given the following quantitative research titles, identify what research design (descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, or experimental) should be utilized. 1. Investigating the effects of formalin treated eggplants on mice. 2. Factors affecting job satisfaction among Tech-Voc graduates. 3. The effects of age on social media platform choice. 4. The relationship between intelligence and sports choices among high school students. 5. Sleep disturbances and post traumatic stress disorder. IC. IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS The value of quantitative research to man’s quest to discover the unknown and improve underlying conditions is undeniable. Throughout history, quantitative research has paved the way to finding meaningful solutions to difficulties. For instance, the development of vaccines to strengthen our immunity against viruses causing highly communicable diseases like polio, influenza, chickenpox, and measles to name a few, underwent thorough experimental trials. Using quantitative design helps us determine and better understand relationships between variables or phenomenon crucial to reducing the range of uncertainty because the mathematics behind quantitative studies helps us make close estimates of the outcome (dependent variable) from a given condition/s (independent variable). Relationship between demand and supply, age and health, discipline and academic achievement, practice and winning at sports, depression and suicidal rates, algae population and Oxygen demand are just a few examples of real-life applications of correlation studies in the past that we still apply today. Most inventions and innovations are products of quantitative studies. Before you can enjoy the uses and features of a smart phone, it took years of research to establish compliance to standards, to find the most cost-effective raw materials, identify the well-built design, the fastest data saving and processing power, and most marketable add-ons according to consumer needs. Indeed, mankind will dwell in the darkness of ignorance if not for the people who conducted their research before reading about it from books or manuals. The table below shows some of the contributions of quantitative research to other fields and their example. Field Contribution /Application Example Sociology  Effects of intervention to group  The effects of inflation on social behavior behavior and economic stability  Understanding cultural or racial conflicts  Human satisfaction and stressors Natural and Physical  Investigate the effectiveness of a  Antidiabetic properties of common Sciences product or treatment to illnesses Philippine herbs  Finding or enhancing alternative  The environmental factors affecting energy sources natural calamities  Advancement in material science  Causes and effects of climate change Agriculture  Increase the yield of crops  The effectiveness of organic and  Prevention and cure for crops inorganic fertilizer to vegetable and livestock diseases production Sports  Enhance athletic performance  Diet and exercise techniques for different kinds of sports Business  Device marketing strategies  Effectiveness of Facebook  Improve marketability  ads on sales Arts and Design  Relationship between color and  The effects of music on architectural space learning and behavior  Multimedia use and adaptation for recreation, business marketing and lifestyle changes. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Given the following quantitative research titles, identify which field (Sociology, Natural and Physical Sciences, Agriculture, Sports, Business, Arts and Design) each belongs. 1. Risks and Opportunities of Increasing Yields in Organic Farming 2. The Level of Mental Health Literacy of Filipino Adults in Metro Manila at the Time of COVID-19 Pandemic 3. Community Structure, Growth, and Productivity of Sea Grasses in the Coastal Area of City of Mati, Davao Oriental 4. Animation as an Aid to Multimedia Learning 5. The Influence of Online Advertising on the Consumer Behavior of Smartphone Customers ID. KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES In order to get an answer to an inquiry that they are investigating, researchers will observe and measure the quality or quantity of the object of the study. It is therefore imperative for the researcher to identify the variables significant in explaining observed effects or behavior. A variable is anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. For instance, your mother planted tomato seedlings in pots. Now common understanding from science tells you that several factors are affecting the growth of tomatoes: sunlight, water, kind of soil, and nutrients in soil. How fast the tomato seedlings will grow and bear fruits will depend on these factors. The growth of tomatoes and the number of fruits produced are examples of the dependent variables. The amount of sunlight, water, and nutrients in the soil are the independent variables. If there is an existing relationship between the independent and dependent variables, then the value of the dependent variable varies in response to the manipulation done on the independent variable. The independent variable is also identified as the presumed cause while the dependent variable is the presumed effect. In an experimental quantitative design, the independent variable is pre-defined and manipulated by the researcher while the dependent variable is observed and measured. Quantitative variables, also called numerical variables are the type of variables used in quantitative research because they are numeric and can be measured. Under this category are discrete and continuous variables. A. Discrete variables are countable whole numbers. For example: number of students in a class, group size and frequency. B. Continuous variables take fractional (non-whole numbers) Example: temperature, height and weight. Qualitative variables are also referred to as categorical variables are not expressed in numbers but are descriptions or categories. It can be further divided into dichotomous, nominal or ordinal. A. Dichotomous variable are consisting of only two distinct categories or values. For example, a response to a question either be a yes or no. B. Nominal variable simply defines groups of subjects. Here you may have more than two categories of equivalent magnitude. For example, blood type, hair color and mode of transportation. C. Ordinal variable, from the name itself denotes that a variable is ranked in a certain order. This variable can have a qualitative or quantitative attribute. For example, a survey questionnaire may have a numerical rating as choices like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ranked accordingly (5=highest, 1=lowest) or categorical rating like strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. Other examples or ordinal variable: cancer stage (Stage I, Stage II, Stage III), Spotify Top 20 hits, academic honors (with highest, with high, with honors). CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Given the research title, identify the following if DEPENDENT or INDEPENDENT variable. Title: The effect of active school participation on student attitude. 1. Student attitude 2. Active school participation Title: The effects of temperature to the growth of bacteria. 3. Temperature differences 4. Growth of bacteria Title: A comparative study between study time and academic excellence. 5. Academic excellence 6. Study time IIA. IN-TEXT CITATION An in-text citation is a short acknowledgement you include if you take information from a source in academic writing. It points the reader to the source so they can see where you got your information. In-text citations most commonly take the form of short parenthetical statements indicating the author and publication year of the source. The most common style is American Psychological Association (APA) format. Example: APA Style in-text citation (Jackson, 2015) The point of an in-text citation is to show your reader where your information comes from. Including citations:  Avoids plagiarism by acknowledging the original author’s contribution.  Allows readers to verify your claims and do follow-up research.  Shows you are engaging with the literature of your field. An in-text citation should be included if you paraphrase a source in your text. Paraphrasing means putting information from a source into your own words. Example: Paraphrase with APA Style in-text citation The evolutionary process consists of a series of incremental changes over a long period of time (Stuart, 2020). There are two types of in-text citations in APA format: parenthetical and narrative. Parenthetical citations include the author(s) and the date of publication within parentheses. Narrative citations intertwine the author as part of the sentence with the date of publication (in parentheses) following. Example: Parenthetical citation- APA Style Citing is fun. It could also be said that citing is sometimes perplexing (Patterson, 2019). Example: Narrative citation- APA Style Patterson (2019) found out that citing is fun. It could also be said that citing is sometimes perplexing. If a work has two authors, insert an ampersand (&) between the authors' names in the parenthetical citation, and spell out “and” in the running text to format a narrative citation. Example: Parenthetical citation- APA Style Citing is fun. It could also be said that citing is sometimes perplexing (Patterson & Brown, 2019). Example: Narrative citation- APA Style Patterson and Brown (2019) found out that citing is fun. It could also be said that citing is sometimes perplexing.  If there are three or more authors, only include the first author's last name followed by “et al.”, meaning “and others”. Example: Parenthetical citation- APA Style Citing is fun. It could also be said that citing is sometimes perplexing (Patterson et al., 2019). Example: Narrative citation- APA Style Patterson et al. (2019) found out that citing is fun. It could also be said that citing is sometimes perplexing. Organizations known by their abbreviations (e.g., WHO) are written in full the first time and are abbreviated in subsequent citations. Example - APA In-Text Citation The data principles of the World Health Organization (2021) provide a foundation for continually reaffirming trust in WHO’s information and evidence on public health. The principles are intended primarily for use by staff across all parts of the organization in order to help define the values and standards that govern how data that flows into, across and out (WHO, 2021) CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Rewrite the following text into a correct in-text citation format. 1. In this paper, the researcher argue that the value-axiom relationship may be dynamic with goal desirability dependent on its surrounding beliefs Benbow and Bond 2014. 2. In the study of (Leung 2007) elucidated that beliefs may emerge from value-filtered experiences. 3. Beliefs also have channelling effects on values (Bardi, 2010, Goodwin, 2010, Zhou, 2010). 4. Values and beliefs should be related be related to one another because motivations and cognitions are often related. DepEd, 2012. IIB. REFERENCING Academic writing relies on more than just the ideas and experience of one author. It also uses the ideas and research of other sources: books, journal articles, websites, and so forth. These other sources may be used to support the author's ideas, or the author may be discussing, analysing, or critiquing other sources. Referencing is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in an assignment. There are many reasons why it is important to reference sources correctly:  It shows the reader that you can find and use sources to create a solid argument  It properly credits the originators of ideas, theories, and research findings  It shows the reader how your argument relates to the big picture Failure to properly acknowledge sources is called plagiarism, and it can carry significant academic penalties. Referencing is a formal system: there are rules and standards to follow when formatting citations and references. Many students find referencing quite intimidating at first. Like any skill, it takes time and patience to learn. The APA style is the most common referencing style used in research. Other styles include MLA style, Oxford style, Harvard style, and Chicago style. These styles are subtly different, and different colleges and departments may ask you to use different styles. APA Reference Page APA style citation requires a reference page with entries that correspond to your internal citations. In an APA citations list, each reference entry has four parts: author, date, title, and source. These four elements answer your readers’ questions about the sources you cite. An APA style, reference page is ordered alphabetically by the first element in the reference entry, usually the first author's last name. Basic format to reference journal articles A basic reference list entry for a journal article in APA must include:  Author or authors. The surname is followed by first initials.  Year of publication of the article (in round brackets).  Article title.  Journal title (in italics).  Volume of journal (in italics).  Issue number of journal in round brackets (no italics).  Page range of article.  DOI or URL  The first line of each citation is left adjusted. Every subsequent line is indented Basic format to reference a webpage on a website The basics of a reference list entry for a webpage on a website (individual author):  Author or authors. The surname is followed by first initials.  Year, Month Day (in round brackets). Use the most exact date possible  Title (in italics).  Website name.  URL.  The first line of each citation is left adjusted. Every subsequent line is indented Basic format to reference a book A basic reference list entry for a book (online or print version) must include:  Author or authors. The surname is followed by first initials.  Year of publication of the book (in round brackets).  Book title (in italics).  Edition (in round brackets), if other than first.  Publisher.   DOI. Include a DOI for all works that have one, regardless of whether you used the online version or print version.  The first line of each citation is left adjusted. Every subsequent line is indented CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING TRUE or FALSE. 1. Entries in a reference list should be placed in alphabetical order. 2. Look at this reference. Is this a complete book reference? Daly, J., Speedy, S & Jackson, Contexts of nursing: An introduction, (4th ed.). Chatswood, Australia: Elsevier Australia. 3. Referencing gives authority to your work. 4. Referencing is encouraged but not required by the University. 5. When utilizing the work of others, and following APA format, it is best to paraphrase the work borrowed and cite the source. IIC. RESEARCH TITLE Basic Guidelines in Make Research Title A research title is the very first thing a reader comes across when searching for scientific literature. It is a concise description of the content of the research study containing the fewest possible words, yet adequate to describe the contents of the paper for a simple reason that we do not want to mislead the readers. After conceptualizing a most probable research topic, drafting the title early in the research process helps in keeping your focus on the subject. The following are the basic guidelines in making a research study title:  Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT.  Include the main dependent and independent variables.  Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.  State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form from time to time.  The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a historical study.  Use current terminology.  Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., H2O)  All beginning letters of each word (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) is capitalized.  Write and italicize the full scientific names. The following steps can guide you in writing your research title:  Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish or know from your study.  Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences into one complete sentence that includes important keywords and variables of the study.  Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words.  Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Evaluate the following erroneous research title and justify what makes it wrong. 1. Phytochemical Analysis and Antioxidant Activity of Moringa oleifera Leaves 2. The Effects of Arts-Integrated Instruction on Arithmetic Skills of Students for S.Y. 2018-2019. 3. Occurrences of Cyberbulling among Junior High School Students in TNHS. 4. Antibacterial Effects of C2H5OH Extract of Carica papaya Leaves. 5. Managing business during global pandemic. IID. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of the context of the study. When we say context, it means the situation or circumstances within which your research topic was conceptualized. Ideally, this part is written when you have already conducted a related studies and has a good perception of the topic so you can articulate the importance of the research problem. It is also in this part of the paper where you justify the need to conduct a research study about the topic selected by establishing the research gap. Example of writing the importance of studying the research problem Cyberbullying significantly impacts the teen and young adult population. It can bring large amounts of stress upon a person and make it extremely difficult to perform daily tasks and responsibilities. Experiencing cyberbullying can also contribute to and worsen mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression. Moreover, cyberbullying can affect a person’s self-esteem and self-worth, which can affect their school life, work life, personal life, and relationships (Indiana State University, 2023). Example of writing the related study of the research problem The study of Cruz (2019) found out that 26.3% of the high school students were significantly affected in their academic performance due to cyberbullying. Approximately 20% of all respondents considered leaving their schools, 19.7% considered ceasing their internet use, and 21.1% considered harming themselves due to the consequences of cyberbullying. A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further exploration. The gap can be in a form of other variables, conditions, population, methodology, or test subject. To identify research gaps, an exhaustive literature review regarding the topic is required. You may have to look for similar or related studies employing quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods from legitimate sources and examine the gray areas. Reading through the Discussion, Conclusion, or the Recommendations sections of the articles will help you know potential areas of study that need further attention. Identifying research gaps sometimes would even make researchers modify their research problem as they get noteworthy ideas from fellow researchers. Example of writing a research gap / urgency of the study In Mati National Comprehensive High School, cyberbullying is evident. The very purpose of this study is to determine the impact of cyberbullying among selected senior high school students. This study serves as baseline data so that school administrators will implement different programs and activities to respond to the sensitivity of students confronting cyberbullying. While both the Background of the Study and the Review of Related Literature involves reading past related studies, they differ in some aspects. The former is at the introductory part of the paper with the purpose of relaying the importance of your research study; the latter is more comprehensive and thoroughly discuss the studies mentioned in the background of research. Moreover, the background of the study will answer the following questions: 1. What is already known about the topic? 2. What is not known about the topic? 3. Why do you need to address those gaps? 4. What is the rationale of your study? CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING I. Identify what part of the background of the study (importance of the study, related study, research gap/urgency of the study) 1. Recent study conducted by Adams (2013) have shown that the aftermath of disasters can have as, if not more, deleterious effects on affected populations as the original calamity. Recovery can be delayed due to corruption, profiteering, or inadequate governance leading to a second-order disaster a humanly perpetuated disaster which further traps disadvantaged populations into precarious life conditions. 2. The field of artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the most rapidly expanding fields in technology today. With the advancement of machine learning algorithms, natural language processing, and other AI- related technologies, AI is becoming an integral part of how businesses operate, how people interact with devices, and how we can make sense of the world. As such, studying AI is essential for anyone interested in leveraging the power of technology to solve real-world problems (Immerse Education, 2024). 3. The increasing impacts of natural disasters are highly correlated to the increasing vulnerability of households and communities especially in developing countries. Hence, the impacts of any disastrous events could result in an immediate increase in poverty. This condition highlights the importance of disaster preparedness especially in Asia where most developing countries are located. The socioeconomic vulnerabilities of these countries may exacerbate the impact of a natural disaster, and thereby making the process of recovery more difficult (Vatsa & Krimgold, 2000). 4. Knowledge on disaster preparedness is an imperative step towards disaster prepared families especially among households in developing countries such as the Philippines. 5. Unfortunately, there is little information on the households’ knowledge on disaster preparedness. There appears to be a lack of study on the state of knowledge among the households of a developing country in Asia such as the Philippines