1GBIO Week 5 - Central Mindanao Colleges PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 WEEK 5 LESSON 1: MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS The Significance / Applications of Meiosis The Significance / Applications of Mitosis LESSON 2: CELL CYCLE: DISEASES AND DISORDERS Activity 1: WHAT IS IT? Direction: Identify what is shown in the picture below and briefly discu...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 WEEK 5 LESSON 1: MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS The Significance / Applications of Meiosis The Significance / Applications of Mitosis LESSON 2: CELL CYCLE: DISEASES AND DISORDERS Activity 1: WHAT IS IT? Direction: Identify what is shown in the picture below and briefly discuss its importance. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper. Activity 1: WHAT IS IT? Direction: Identify what is shown in the picture below and briefly discuss its importance. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper. Activity 1: WHAT IS IT? Direction: Identify what is shown in the picture below and briefly discuss its importance. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.  Most of the known organisms on earth, including humans, use aerobic cellular respiration. In aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is an oxygen molecule, O2. If aerobic respiration occurs, then ATP will be produced using the energy of the high-energy electrons carried by NADH or FADH2 to the electron transport chain. If aerobic respiration does not occur, NADH must be reoxidized to NAD+ for reuse as an electron carrier for glycolysis to continue.  How is this done? Some living systems use an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor. Processes that use an organic molecule to regenerate NAD+ from NADH are collectively referred to as fermentation.  In contrast, some living systems use an inorganic molecule as a final electron acceptor; both methods are a type of anaerobic cellular respiration. Anaerobic respiration enables organisms to convert energy for their use in the absence of oxygen. LESSON 1: FERMENTATION AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION LESSON 2: “COOL BUT FEARFUL” CELL MEMBRANE OBJECTIVES: a. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of fermentation and aerobic respiration; and b. Relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its function. LESSON 1: FERMENTATION AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION WHAT IS FERMENTATION? Fermentation is any metabolic process in which microorganisms’ activity creates a desirable change in food and beverages, whether it’s increasing flavor, preserving foodstuffs, providing health benefits, or more. The word “ferment” comes from the Latin verb “fervere,” which means “to boil.” Ironically, fermentation is possible without heat. WHAT IS FERMENTATION? Fermentation is any metabolic process in which microorganisms’ activity creates a desirable change in food and beverages, whether it’s increasing flavor, preserving foodstuffs, providing health benefits, or more. The word “ferment” comes from the Latin verb “fervere,” which means “to boil.” Ironically, fermentation is possible without heat. HOW DOES FERMENTATION WORK? To master fermentation, you need to understand the science behind the chemical process. Microorganisms survive using carbohydrates (sugars, such as glucose) for energy and fuel. Organic chemicals like adenosine triphosphate (ATP) deliver that energy to every part of a cell when needed. HOW DOES FERMENTATION WORK? To master fermentation, you need to understand the science behind the chemical process. Microbes generate ATP using respiration. Aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen, is the most efficient way to do that. Aerobic respiration begins with glycolysis, where glucose is converted into pyruvic acid. When there’s enough oxygen present, aerobic respiration occurs. HOW DOES FERMENTATION WORK? To master fermentation, you need to understand the science behind the chemical process.  Fermentation is similar to anaerobic respiration—the kind that takes place when there isn’t enough oxygen present. However, fermentation leads to the production of different organic molecules like lactic acid, which also leads to ATP, unlike respiration, which uses pyruvic acid. HOW DOES FERMENTATION WORK? To master fermentation, you need to understand the science behind the chemical process.  Depending upon environmental conditions, individual cells and microbes have the ability to switch between the two different modes of energy production.  Organisms commonly obtain energy anaerobically through fermentation, but some systems use sulfate as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain. What Happens During the Fermentation Process? Fermentation occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions), and in the presence of beneficial microorganisms (yeasts, molds, and bacteria) that obtain their energy through fermentation. If enough sugar is available, some yeast cells, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration even when oxygen is abundant.  During the fermentation process, these beneficial microbes break down sugars and starches into alcohols and acids, making food more nutritious and preserving it so people can store it for longer periods of time without it spoiling. What Happens During the Fermentation Process? Fermentation occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions), and in the presence of beneficial microorganisms (yeasts, molds, and bacteria) that obtain their energy through fermentation. If enough sugar is available, some yeast cells, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration even when oxygen is abundant.  Fermentation products provide enzymes necessary for digestion. This is important because humans are born with a finite number of enzymes, and they decrease with age. Fermented foods contain the enzymes required to break them down. What Happens During the Fermentation Process? Fermentation occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions), and in the presence of beneficial microorganisms (yeasts, molds, and bacteria) that obtain their energy through fermentation. If enough sugar is available, some yeast cells, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration even when oxygen is abundant. Fermentation also aids in pre-digestion. During the fermentation process, the microbes feed on sugars and starches, breaking down food before anyone’s even consumed it. What Are the Advantages of Fermentation? Fermented foods are rich in probiotics, beneficial microorganisms that help maintain a healthy gut so it can extract nutrients from food. Probiotics aid the immune system because the gut produces antibiotic, anti-tumor, anti-viral, and antifungal substances, and pathogens don’t do well in the acidic environment fermented foods create. HOW DOES What Are the FERMENTATION Advantages of WORK? Fermentation? Fermented foods are rich in probiotics, beneficial microorganisms that help maintain a healthy gut so it can extract nutrients from food. Fermentation neutralizes anti-nutrients like phytic acid, which occurs in grains, nuts, seeds, and legumes and can cause mineral deficiencies. Phytates also make starches, proteins, and fats less digestible, so neutralizing them is extremely beneficial. What Are the Advantages of Fermentation? Fermented foods are rich in probiotics, beneficial microorganisms that help maintain a healthy gut so it can extract nutrients from food. Fermentation increases the vitamins and minerals in food and make them more available for absorption. Fermentation also increases B and C vitamins and enhances folic acid, riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, and biotin. The probiotics, enzymes, and lactic acid in fermented foods facilitate the absorption of these vitamins and minerals into the body. List of Cons of Fermentation  It increases the risk of developing gastric cancer. An article published in Cancer Science in January 2011 looked into the effect of consuming fermented and non- fermented soy foods in developing gastric cancer. The study was a meta-analysis of reports and it showed that a high intake of fermented soy foods increased the risk of gastric cancer. The research also showed that a diet rich in non-fermented soy foods helps reduce the risk of gastric cancer. List of Cons of Fermentation  It is vulnerable to contamination. The fermentation process requires high man power as well as constant monitoring. It’s also a slow process compared to the chemical process. In 2001, a botulism outbreak in a village in Alaska was traced to the consumption of fermented beaver tail and paw, which is a local delicacy. Another case of botulism outbreak handled by Orange County Health Care Company was caused by home-prepared fermented tofu. List of Advantages of Aerobic Respiration  It improves cognition. Aerobic exercises require you to memorize a number of steps as they progress, which creates a mental training that can improve your cognitive skills. And if you are using a fast pace, you will be coerced to quickly adapt to the changes in sequence, which will keep you on your toes not only physically, but also mentally. List of Advantages of Aerobic Respiration  It boosts endurance. Basically a high-energy workout, aerobic respiration can improve your endurance by optimizing the amount of calories you burn, while keeping your heart rate high throughout a session. Thus, it is ideal if you are trying to tone your muscles and lose weight. List of Disadvantages of Aerobic Respiration  High-impact exercises could be bad for the body. The repetitive and highimpact steps in aerobics c have ligament or bone problems. As you can see, this type of workout would use steps that can be difficult for you to keep up, if you have joint problems. Basically, most movements performed in aerobics are high-impact, which are not suitable for someone with weak bones. List of Disadvantages of Aerobic Respiration  It can result to a body shape you did not desire. Too much of aerobic respiration can result to a body shape that you did not want, where you can begin to look straight without curves or any undesirable body shape. You could end up having an emaciated, hungry look, though you should have the powerful look of a sprinter. List of Disadvantages of Aerobic Respiration  It comes with issues on social environment. Aerobics are usually held in a class setting, which makes the experience enjoyable if you love working out with other people. But if you are not the social type, then this regimen would not work for you, especially if you are intimidated easily. List of Disadvantages of Aerobic Respiration  For aerobic respiration to work for you, you should make sure its advantages weigh out the disadvantages on your end. It is also important to combine it with other forms of workout to get the best results.  Majority of probiotics are found in a group of lactic acid-producing bacteria, which can be found in fermented milk, yogurt and other fermented foods.  Eating foods that contain lactic acid bacteria can improve the health of the intestinal tract, improve bioavailability of nutrients, reduce symptoms of lactose intolerance and decrease chances of allergy in those who are susceptible. The consumption of dairy is associated with coronary heart disease risks. Buttermilk that were produced from the fermentation process may contain properties that are good for the heart.  The consumption of fermented foods restores proper bacteria balance in your intestines. As such, your intestines become less vulnerable plus your immune system also becomes stronger. LESSON 2: “COOL BUT FEARFUL” CELL MEMBRANE  This is another lesson on cell membrane, and this time, it deals with the cell membrane structures and their functions. One of these structures present in a cell membrane is phospholipid bilayer. All lipids have one thing in common - they do not mix well with water. You have been aware that when you try to combine oil and water, no matter how much or how hard you shake them together, they remain separated. As we go along with our lesson, we will be getting to know how the structural components of the cell membrane relate to their functions.  “Cool but Fearful” Cell Membrane by: Haydee Carumba-Parreño A long time ago, there was a sophisticated creature named Cell Membrane. Her parents sometimes fondly called her Plasma Membrane. Her entire body is made of phospholipid bilayer that makes her semi- permeable which simply means that she does not allow everything to pass freely inside-out of her. Is she likely to be choosy about who she allows into her life or is she just simply looking for “Mr. Right”? A Phospholipid has a hydrophilic head and two hydrophilic tails. Therefore, it is always interesting when Cell Membrane takes a bath. She loves to soak her head with water while her two tails are always hiding inside her because she hates it when water touches them. Nobody in the community was able to peep on her tails on how they look like thus, these remain mysterious to them.  “Cool but Fearful” Cell Membrane by: Haydee Carumba-Parreño Phospholipid’s head has alcohol and glycerol group while chains of fatty acids comprised her tails. These make Plasma Membrane more elegant. Her body is pampered with another type of lipid called cholesterol. Just like phospholipid, cholesterol is also amphipathic. Cell Membrane calls cholesterol as "sterol" because it is composed of alcohol and steroid which give her more fluid. This characteristic is most admired by friends because it makes her body soft and huggable.  “Cool but Fearful” Cell Membrane by: Haydee Carumba-Parreño Proteins are perhaps Cell Membrane’s lovely personal assistants (PA) since they transport materials into and out of the cell. Integral proteins or “transmembrane proteins” that go all the way through the bilayer controls what enter and exit the Cell. Peripheral proteins are only on one side and sometimes attached to integral protein. Protein makes Cell Membrane talk of the town as “cool but fearful” since she attacks to death some of her invading enemies. What make Cell Membrane more vigilant is the presence of carbohydrates with 2-60 monosaccharides unit. Plasma Membrane has twins of carbohydrates attached to her lipid which she called ”glycolipid” and the other is linked to the protein named “glycoprotein”.  “Cool but Fearful” Cell Membrane by: Haydee Carumba-Parreño Glycoprotein helps Cell Membrane in recognizing who her neighbors are whether they are of the same kind, friends, or enemies These chains of carbohydrates serve as antenna or CCTV that are constantly monitoring and spying the surroundings keeping her most loved cell organelles protected.  “Cool but Fearful” Cell Membrane by: Haydee Carumba-Parreño Just like her parents, Cell Membrane or “Plasma Membrane” loves to call her allies on their nicknames such as: integral protein as “transmembrane protein”; cholesterol as “sterol”; carbohydrates attached to lipid as “glycolipid”; and carbohydrates attached to protein as “glycoprotein”. Sophisticated, choosy, attacker, are just some of Cell Membrane’s attributes. All these are made possible because of her treasures: phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates which the illustrators J Singer and G. Nicolson painted her as a “Fluid Mosaic Model”. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS A phospholipid molecule consists of a three-carbon glycerol backbone with two fatty acid molecules attached to carbons 1 and 2, and a phosphatecontaining group attached to the third carbon. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS Fatty acids are long chains that are mostly made up of hydrogen and carbon, while phosphate groups consist of a phosphorus molecule with four oxygen molecules attached. The fatty acid tails of phospholipids can be SATURATED (straight) or UNSATURATED (bent or kinked). Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids tail exists in either a cis configuration. In the cis configuration, the two hydrogens associated with the bond are on the same side. A cis double bond generates a kink or bend in the fatty acid, a feature that has important consequences for the behavior of fats. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS Functions of Phospholipids  provide barriers in cellular membranes  provide structure to the cell’s membranes, which in turn keep organelles organized  provide pathways for different molecules like water, oxygen and carbon dioxide to cross the membrane  assist in the transport of materials and signals Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 2. CHOLESTEROL Cholesterol has a unique structure consisting of four linked hydrocarbon rings forming the bulky steroid structure. It is also known as "sterol" because it is composed of alcohol and steroid. Like phospholipids, cholesterol is an amphipathic molecule. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 2. CHOLESTEROL Functions of Cholesterol:  Regulates membrane fluidity and permeability to water soluble molecules that would otherwise freely cross the membrane.  Helps prevent ions from passing through the membrane.  It separates phospholipid tails to prevent crystallization of the membrane  It helps secure peripheral proteins by forming high density lipid rafts capable of anchoring the protein Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE There are three common forms in integral membrane proteins, such as, α-helix protein, α-helical protein, and β-sheet protein. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Junctions – serve to connect and join two cells together Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Enzymes - carry out chemical reactions - speed up the change of substances into other substances Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Transport/channel – responsible for facilitated diffusion and active transport Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Recognition – a glycoprotein acting as identity markers distinguishing body’s own cell from foreign cells. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Anchorage – attachment points for cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: Transduction/receptor – receptor that binds to chemical messengers such as hormones or immune mediators sent by other cells - are specific and selective for the molecules they bind - receive extracellular inputs and activate intracellular response. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 3. MEMBRANE PROTEINS STRUCTURE Functions of Membrane Proteins: To easily memorize the functions, just remember the mnemonic JET RAT Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 4. CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrate is a chain of 2–60 monosaccharide units and can be either straight or branched. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 4. CARBOHYDRATES : Types of Carbohydrates: Glycoproteins –There are one or more oligosaccharides linked to a protein, usually branched forming highly specific sites for recognition and high-affinity binding by other proteins. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 4. CARBOHYDRATES : Types of Carbohydrates: Glycolipids – are carbohydrates attached to lipids in which the hydrophilic head groups are oligosaccharides. An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number of monosaccharides. Only 5 % of lipids in membranes are glycolipids. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 4. CARBOHYDRATES : Types of Carbohydrates: Glycoproteins and glycolipids are short chain carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids on the extracellular side of the membrane. These carbohydrate chains act as antennae, receiving chemical messages from other cells. They are also markers & identifiers that identify the cell to other cells. Structures of the Cell Membrane and their Functions 4. CARBOHYDRATES : Main Functions of Carbohydrates Participate in cell recognition and adhesion, either cell-cell attachment to form tissues or cell-pathogen interactions They have a structural role as a physical barrier.