Indian Independence: The Impact of World War II PDF

# Indian Independence ## The impact of the Second World War ### Adam Kidson explains the reasons behind Britain's eventual departure from India after the Second World War. **Argument** * The Second World War (1939-45) acted as a catalyst for Indian independence. Before the war Britain had maintai...

# Indian Independence ## The impact of the Second World War ### Adam Kidson explains the reasons behind Britain's eventual departure from India after the Second World War. **Argument** * The Second World War (1939-45) acted as a catalyst for Indian independence. Before the war Britain had maintained a strong grip on India but at its conclusion that hold was much weaker, allowing for significant progress to be made. **Weakened Raj, changed minds** * The conclusion of the Second World War saw massive changes across the world: empires declined and boundaries were redrawn as nations readjusted after the tribulations of that global and terrible conflict. * In India the war had a particularly significant effect: 2 years following the defeat of Nazism India was free from British control. India enjoyed a less than cordial relationship with neighbouring Pakistan - a nation newly established from within India itself. * Indians had been petitioning for self-rule for more than 40 years but it was only after 1945 that Britain realistically considered it. The change in attitude came from a variety of influences, ranging from political and economic imperatives brought about by direct involvement in war to a more resistant nationalist movement that was better positioned to make demands of a vulnerable and weakened British empire. ## Indian nationalism before the war * Prior to the outbreak of war in September 1939 Indian nationalism had enjoyed much success. Significant reform had been gained and the latest, the 1935 Government of India Act, saw Indians controlling all aspects of their nation, with the exception of military and foreign affairs. Hard won, these reforms were demonstrative of both a more progressive British government and a forceful nationalist movement. * Since the earliest reforms by Viceroy Minto and the secretary of state for India, John Morley, in 1909, India had steadily gained more self-rule as Britain was confronted time and again with a more organised and aggressive independence movement. * Despite evident progress, however, India remained under British control and any sense of power was overshadowed by that which Britain retained. India could legislate within its borders and administrate as it saw fit, but genuinely independent nations could freely conclude treaties and agreements with the international community also. In this area British power remained absolute. * The illusion of Indian authority was seen clearly when Britain mobilised for war. As a member of the British empire, India was directed to participate. Troops were committed without consulting the Indian National Congress (INC) which, since 1937, had established a majority government in India under the 1935 reforms. In protest the INC resigned all government positions and adopted a sharply anti-British stance, with the intention of forcing the concession of self-determination. In this sense the war strained the delicate relationship that had been established between nationalists and the Raj. * Within the nationalist movement it also provided a welcome opportunity for the Muslim League to build upon the strong position that it had acquired following the sectarian rule of Congress. In contrast to the Congress Party, Jinnah encouraged Muslims to support the war effort and offer any assistance necessary to the British. This was an astute move and afforded the Muslim League greater sympathy among Britain's leaders. The League was able to use the obstinacy of the INC to further its own agenda by winning the ear of those in power. * In May 1940 Jinnah was invited to the viceroy's palace, where he was able to discuss his own ideas for a future settlement. The notes of this meeting became the basis of the 'August Offer', which provided a significantly strengthened Muslim platform. In terms of political influence the Muslim League was swiftly emerging as a dominant force, in contrast to the INC, which was hated among British conservative circles. This new dynamic that emerged during the war would be pivotal in the eventual settlement. ## The war was costly for the British. * The end of the war saw massive changes in Britain, which had a direct effect upon India. Perhaps most significantly, in July 1945 the arch imperialist Churchill was ousted from power and replaced with a more nationalist-sympathetic Labour government under Clement Attlee. Having served on the Simon Commission nearly 20 years before, Attlee was aware of the situation in India and was sympathetic to the demands of the Indian people. * His party, however, was ideologically and politically wedded to the reconstruction of Britain and the building of a modern state, having been elected on these pledges. For this first postwar government there were innumerable difficulties to overcome, with only a limited amount of material resources. Under these circumstances priorities had to be established, and the position that India held on this list was slipping with every month that passed. * Fighting the war had been an expensive experience for Britain. War debts were in excess of £2 billion, while the cost it would take to rebuild London and other major cities demolished by the Luftwaffe had yet to be calculated. Despite this heavy financial burden, the new British government was committed to building a welfare state - including the establishing of a National Health Service. Having been elected on this platform it was politically wise for Britain to fund this venture, and therefore money had to be found. * In drawing up a balance sheet the economist John Maynard Keynes estimated that India would cost more than £1 billion a year to maintain. Given also that the profits being made from India were diminishing between 1929 and 1935 exports to that country declined by more than £44 million - the economic incentive that had been behind Britain originally getting involved in the Indian subcontinent was no longer great. * In addition to the economic cost of maintaining a British presence, there was also a growing military concern. Throughout the war it was increasingly apparent that Britain could only retain control of India by force. Gandhi's 'Quit India' campaign indicated a continued disaffection with the Raj and necessitated a firm response by Britain to bring it to an end. * During these years the Indian Army had remained loyal but in February 1946 more than 20,000 independence-minded soldiers mutinied. With the British Army weary from 6 years of conflict and keen to return home, the mutiny of those serving in India left the Raj in a vulnerable position. Without a reliable means to subdue any nationalist threat, the chances of a lasting regime became less and less likely, especially as both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League were still seeking a further settlement following the collapse of the Cripps Mission in 1942. ## Nationalism after 1945 * The perceived threat of the nationalist movement certainly influenced the British decision to withdraw as the war had created a set of circumstances that made fighting them less appealing. Economic and military problems, coupled with a less imperially motivated government meant there was less desire to stay in India. In the provincial government elections in the spring of 1946, the nationalist parties won an overwhelming victory. The INC took 90% of the total electorate while the Muslim League won all 30 of the seats reserved for Muslims. With this outcome, Britain was left under no illusion that India demanded its freedom. * The outcome of the provincial government elections also brought the spectre of partition closer. Since 1940 the Muslim League had demanded a separate state and, given the strengthened position it occupied following its cooperation during the war, electoral success made it a significant delegate in any settlement talks. With the balance of power between the INC and Muslim League finely tuned and both parties increasingly unwilling to compromise, partition would eventually become the only option available. * With the British under mounting pressure to resolve the problems in India, perhaps the clearest example of Indian obstinacy over partition lies with the wasted opportunity presented by the Cabinet Mission in 1946. Suggesting the most comprehensive set of reforms yet, this panel of senior politicians offered the prospect of complete autonomy, including the control of foreign affairs and defence. All that was denied was the acceptance of partition which, the British felt, would undermine their security plans in that part of the world. * After much debate, and the additional promise in May of participation within an interim government while the elections were taking place, this offer was accepted by both the Muslim League and the INC. The 'victory' was short-lived, however, and in June 1946 Jawaharlal Nehru demonstrated the caustic influence of religious division by publicly claiming that any national government under the terms set out would provide a 'Hindu Raj', as this religion was the dominant majority in India. With this statement the settlement collapsed and Muslims themselves frustrated and seeking a more confrontational approach - prepared for Direct Action Day on 16 August 1946. * This event saw thousands wounded or killed and the prospect of a united India lost for ever. It also highlighted the much-weakened position that the Raj was in. Unable to restore order, the British were reliant on the Indian leadership itself to stem the aggression. When peace was re-established the British were resolved to transfer what authority they had left into Indian hands. ## Conclusion * The Second World War was fundamental to the eventual independence of India and the creation of Pakistan. Prior to its onset, Britain stubbornly remained wedded to the idea of a British Raj: the 'jewel in the crown' of empire. Any power that the nationalists had attained was carefully conceded and the 'real' authority always retained. * During and after the pressing matters introduced by the war, however, Britain was under increasing pressure to take care of its home nation. Under such conditions India quickly became an expensive luxury that Britain could no longer afford. An increasingly powerful and entrenched nationalist movement was raising the stakes, and withdrawal was the only financially and politically viable option. With the decision made, Britain sought to extricate itself as quickly as possible. Given the uncompromising mood of the INC and the Muslim League, partition was the most advisable way of doing so. **Further Reading** * Judd, D. (2004) The Lion and the Tiger: the Rise and Fall of the British Raj 1600-1947, Oxford University Press. * Leadbeater, T. (2008) Britain and India 1845-1947, Hodder Education. * Misra, M. (2007) Vishnu's Crowded Temple: India Since the Great Rebellion, Allen Lane. * Rees, R. (2010) Britain and the Nationalist Challenge in India 1900-1947, Pearson Education.