COG.pdf

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 25% of what they've learned. - Within 30 days: People forget up to 90% of what they've COGNITION: the mental processes such as learned percep...

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 25% of what they've learned. - Within 30 days: People forget up to 90% of what they've COGNITION: the mental processes such as learned perception, attention, and memory, which the mind creates- “how the mind operates and its 1890: WILLIAM JAMES: “principle of functions”- everything a human mind might psychology” possibly do 1913: JOHN WATSON: Behaviorism: Science of COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: the study of mental behavior that focuses on observable behavior processes includes determining the only characteristics and properties of the mind 1938: B.F SKINNER: Operant conditioning: HISTORY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant 1800’s: beliefs “ it is not possible to study the mind” 1948: CHACE TOLMAN: Cognitive map: Rat maze, as an example of latent learning in rats. 1868: FRANCISCUS DONDERS: first cognitive psychology experiment. “how long does it takes 1950: COGNITIVE REVOLUTION: shift from to make a decision” REACTION TIME: how long it behaviorism to internal mental processes takes to respond to presentation of stimulus. driving human behavior Simple reaction time: the time it takes to 1953: COLIN CHERRY: Attention experiment: respond to a stimulus, and it's a measure of how "cocktail party effect" when we hear two quickly someone processes information. In a messages simultaneously, we are unable to simple reaction time test, a participant performs gather meaning from either message unless their a simple task, like pressing a button, in response content is distinct. to a stimulus, like a light or tone. The time between the stimulus and the response is 1956: DARTMOUTH CONFERENCE: It examines measured. Choice reaction time: the time it some main themes of fields of research of the takes a person to respond to a stimulus by period, including neural networks, the theory of selecting a response from a set of options computability, creativity and natural language processing and recognition. 1879: WILHELM WUNDT: Structuralism: Focused on structure of basic elements of the 1957: B.F SKINNER: Verbal behavior: a concept mind that describes how people use language to communicate and interact with others 1885: HERMAN EBBINGHOUS: Memory experiment: what is the time course of forgetting 1958: DONALD BROUDBENT: Broadbent’s flow Forgetting curve: shows that memory declines diagram rapidly after learning new information and 1967: ULRIC NEISSER: father of cognitive flattens out after 24 hours- Within 20 psychology- Made the first cognitive psychology minutes: People retain about 60% of what book. they've learned. - Within an hour: People forget about half of what they've learned. - Within 24 SENSORY MEMORY: a short-term memory that hours: People forget about 70% of what they've stores information from the five senses: sight, learned. - Within a week: People retain about hearing, smell, taste, and touch EPISODIC MEMORY: the ability to remember PARTS OF NEURON specific events and personal experiences that happened in the past, including the time, place, and emotions associated with them. SEMANTIC MEMORY: the long-term storage of general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and the meaning of words. It's a Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and is system that's closely linked to perception, responsible for maintaining the neuron’s action, and language. structure and function. PROCEDURAL MEMORY: a type of memory that Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive helps people perform tasks without being messages from other neurons. – consciously aware of the previous experiences that taught them how to do it Axon: or nerve fiber A long, thin structure that transmits signals away from the neuron’s cell Empiricism: This perspective, championed by body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. – Locke, argues that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. Empiricism led to the Synapse: The gap between neurons where development of experimental methods in neurotransmitters are released to pass the signal psychology. from one neuron to another Rationalism: Promoted by Descartes, INTER NEURON: a type of neuron that connect rationalism suggests that reason and innate sensory and motor neurons in the central ideas are the primary sources of knowledge. This nervous system (CNS). Integrate afferent and debate highlighted the tension between sensory efferent experience and rational thought, shaping early AFFERENT NEURON: a neuron transmit psychological message from senses to CNS COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: is the study of the EFFERENT NEURON: nerve cells that carry physiological basis of cognition, combining signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to elements from psychology and neuroscience to muscles, glands, and organs to initiate understand how brain function underpins mental movement processes. TRANSDUCTION: converting chemical energy Central nervous system: the brain and spinal into brain language, the process of converting a cord stimulus into an electrical signal that can be Peripheral nervous syste: transmits information used by the nervous system to and from the central nervous system threshold potential: is the membrane voltage Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous at which an action potential is triggered. For System - Neurons are the primary cells most human neurons, the threshold potential is responsible for transmitting information around -55 millivolts throughout the nervous system. GENERATING THE MESSAGE: NEURAL IMPULSE Ions: Charged particles- Inside neuron: negatively charged- Outside neuron: positively charged Resting potential: the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse Action potential: the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon.- Allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell. All-or-none: referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely of does not fire at all Return to resting potential Agonist: Mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell Antagonists: block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters Neuroplasticity: the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cell involved in trauma. NEUROTRANSMITTERS: Acetylcholine: Excitatory or inhibitory, Involved in arousal, attention, memory, and controls muscle. Serotonin: Excitatory or inhibitory-mood, sleep, appetite GABA: ( Gamma Aminobutyric Acid) – sleep, inhibits movement Glutamate: learning, Corpus Callosum: a thick bundle of nerve fibers memory formation, nervous system that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, development and synaptic plasticity allowing them to communicate and coordinate Norepinephrine: involved in arousal and mood their functions Dopamine: control of movements and CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES sensations of pleasure Endorphins: pain relief LEFT: Language, speech, handwriting, math- Excitatory neurotransmitter: causes the RIGHT: perception, visualization, spatial receiving cell to fire. Inhibitory neurotransmitter: perception, recognition, emotional expression causes the receiving cell to stop firing Cerebrum: is the largest part of your brain, and it LOCALIZATION: The concept that specific handles a wide range of responsibilities. Located functions are localized to certain areas of the at the front and top of your skull, it gets its name brain from the Latin word meaning “brain.” muscle functions and also control speech, thought, the Sylvian fissure, separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes. FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN Occipital lobe: section of the brain located at the rear bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual center of the brain. - Primary visual cortex: processes visual emotions, reading, writing, and learning. information from the eyes- Visual association Cerebellum: is located in the back of the head, cortex: identifies and makes sense of visual at the bottom of the brain, and just above where information the neck meets the skull. It's the largest part of Parietal Lobes: section of the brain located at the hindbrain and makes up about 10% of the the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere brain's space. containing the centers for touch, taste, and Medulla oblongata: is the connection between temperature sensation. - Somatosensory the brainstem and the spinal cord. Comprised of cortex: area of neurons running down the front the cardiovascular-respiratory regulation of the parietal lobes responsible for processing system, descending motor tracts, ascending information from the skin and internal body sensory tracts. life-sustaining function such as receptors for touch, temperature, body position, breathing, swallowing, and heart rate and possibly taste. Cerebral cortex: is the outermost layer of your Temporal Lobes: areas of the cortex located brain. Its surface has many folds, giving it a just behind the temples containing the neurons wrinkled appearance. The folds consist of many responsible for the sense of hearing and deep grooves called sulci and raised areas called meaningful speech.- Primary auditory cortex: gyri. processes auditory information from the ears- Gyri: The bumps or ridges on the brain's Auditory association cortex: identifies and surface. The core of gyri is made up of white makes sense of auditory information matter, while the outer area is made up of gray Frontal Lobes: areas of the cortex located in the matter. front and top of the brain, responsible for higher Sulci: The grooves or fissures between the mental processes and decision making as well gyri. Sulci can vary in depth from slight grooves as the production of fluent speech.- Motor to deep enough to reach the lateral ventricle. cortex : Section of the frontal lobe located at the back, responsible for sending motor commands Fissures: Deeper grooves that divide the brain to the muscles of the somatic nervous system into lobes and hemispheres. The longitudinal fissure, also known as the cerebral fissure, Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from median longitudinal fissure, or interhemispheric damage to Broca’s area (usually in left frontal fissure, separates the left and right lobe), causing the affected person to be unable hemispheres. The lateral fissure, also known as to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and speak haltingly. Wernicke’s aphasia: condition resulting from environment. dependent on sensation because damage to Wernicke’s area (usually in left without the sensory we can’t receive a stimulus temporal lobe), causing the affected person to Top-down Processing: Constructs perceptions be unable to understand or produce meaningful from the sensory input by drawing on our language experiences and expectations NEUROIMAGING: a medical imaging technique Bottom-up Processing: Begins with sensory that uses quantitative methods to study the receptors and works up to the brain’s integration brain and nervous system of sensory information. Physiological Bottom- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): A common Up: Involves the neural mechanisms that technique that can distinguish between different respond directly to sensory stimuli. - Behavioral brain tissues and has high image resolution. Bottom-Up: Concerns how stimuli influence perception and response, demonstrated by Positron emission tomography (PET): Uses various experiments. radioactive tracers and ligands to show how the brain and its tissues are working. PET scans can Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference: identify resting-state metabolic features and the symbols or representations of the physical world density of neurotransmitter receptors and that can be interpreted and disambiguated transporters. through converging evidence from different senses. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): Uses MRI technology to measure brain Gestalt Laws of Organization: Principles that activity by detecting changes in blood flow. describe how we organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes. Emphasizes that the Computed tomography (CT): Can help whole of anything is greater then its part. As understand the structural and functional status organized whole that is perceived as more than of clinically significant signs of diseases. the sum of its parts. Processing at an entire Electroencephalography (EEG): Uses small pattern. From small to big. electrodes placed along the scalp to record the THE LAW OF SIMILARITY: We tend to group brain's electrical signals objects that are similar in appearance. This Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Measures means that items that share characteristics such the magnetic fields generated by synchronized as color, shape, or size are perceived as part of a ionic neural currents in the brain. collective whole. example: In a grid of dots, if some are blue and others are red, we are likely to Contrast X-rays: also known as contrast see clusters of similar colors rather than radiography, use a special dye or contrast individual dots. For instance, a grid where blue medium to make certain parts of the body easier dots form a circle and red dots form a square will to see on an X-ray lead us to perceive two distinct shapes. PERCEPTION THE LAW OF PRAGNANZ: This principle states Perception is the process of interpreting sensory that we perceive complex images in the simplest information to represent and understand the form possible. Our brains naturally prefer the most straightforward and stable interpretations of visual stimuli. Example: When looking at a C. whether a group of people present affect complex design, such as overlapping circles and how much is given to charity triangles, we tend to see simple geometric d. if the reading speed of college graduates differs from that of high school graduates shapes first (like a circle and a triangle) rather - A rationalist than focusing on the complexity of the whole a. uses logical analysis to understand the arrangement. world and people's relations to it. b. is a follower of Aristotle's empiricist THE LAW OF PROXIMITY: Objects that are close philosophy. to each other are often perceived as related or C. supports the idea of monism. grouped together. The distance between d. believes that knowledge is acquired through elements can influence how we interpret their experience and observation. relationship. Example: In a classroom, if a group - Rationalism is to as empiricism is to of students sits close together, we perceive them a. empirical evidence; theory b. theory; empirical evidence as a group, even if they are not interacting. Conversely, students sitting far apart are seen as C. theory; empirical evidence separate individuals. d. hypothesis; theory THE LAW OF CONTINUITY: We tend to perceive - This particular approach emphasizes logical analysis as emphasizes logical analysis as the lines and patterns as continuous, even when means to acquiring new knowledge. they are interrupted. Our eyes follow the a. Tabula rasa smoothest path when viewing shapes and forms. b. Synthesis Example: When viewing a wavy line that crosses c. Rationalist over itself, we perceive it as a single flowing line d. Empiricist rather than as a series of disconnected 5. An empiricist segments. Our eyes naturally follow the smooth a. believes that knowledge is acquired through curve. experience and observation. b. is a follower of Plato's rationalist philosophy THE LAW OF CLOSURE: We have a tendency to C. supports the idea of mind-body dualism. fill in gaps in incomplete figures, perceiving them d. believes that the mind and the body are as whole objects. This means that if parts of a separate entities. shape are missing, we still recognize it as a - This particular approach emphasizes empirical complete form. Example: In a logo design, if a evidence as the means to acquiring new circle is incomplete with a small gap, we still knowledge perceive it as a complete circle. Our brains fill in a. Rationalist the missing part, allowing us to recognize the b. Monist shape easily. c. Empiricist. QUIZ 1 : d. Nativist - Which of the following would not be studied by -Elma, an automobile factory worker, learns how a Cognitive Psychologist? to install a car air conditioner by watching a a. whether people can pay attention to multiple fellow worker install the part. The knowledge stimuli at once without losing accuracy Elma has just acquired is acquired knowledge. b. if advertising using animation is more a. Experimentally memorable than advertising using no animation b. reductively c. innately b. analyzing perceptions into their constituent d. empirically parts. -Psychology is sometimes viewed as a merging C. observing responses to various stimuli. of d. evaluating other schools of thought to provide a "structure" for the new movement. a. philosophy and monism. b. rationalism and physiology. - Wilhelm Wundt's idea of involved looking c. physiology and empiricism inward at the contents of one's consciousness. a. Projection d. philosophy and physiology. b. introversion - Descartes is known for having been a(n) C. repression a. functionalist. d. introspection b. behaviorist. - Bill, a mechanic, believes that automobile c. empiricist. research should place an emphasis on studying d. rationalist. how a car is used and the processes that occur - A philosopher who largely rejected acquisition among the various parts. If Bill had chosen of knowledge by empirical means was psychology as a career field, he might have been a. John Locke. in favor of b. Aristotle. a. Gestaltism c. David Hume. b. structuralism. c. behaviorism. d. René Descartes. d. functionalism. -Which of the following people supported the -. Which of the following examples is most rationalist view and largely rejected the pure analogous to the goal of the structuralist empirical view? movement? a. Kant a. Scientists study an entire assembled jigsaw b. Aristotle puzzle in order to understand each of the pieces. c. Descartes b. Scientists look at how the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle fit together in order to understand the d. Locked assembling process. - ___ refers to Locke's belief that all knowledge is gained empirically, beginning at birth, when our c. Scientists look at each piece of a jigsaw minds are a blank slate. puzzle in order to understand the whole puzzle as assembled. a. Innate d. Scientists study the different ways a jigsaw b. A priori puzzle can be assembled to form different c. A posteriori images. d. Tabula rasa 13. Immanuel Kant - The school of thought that focuses on answering the question of "What do people do a. believed in an integration of rationalism and and why do they do it?" is called empiricism. b. rejected completely all forms of rationalism a. Gestaltism. and empiricism. b. structuralism. c. believed only in rationalism. d. believed only in empiricism. c. psychoanalysis. - The goal of structuralism was to understand d. functionalism. the "content" of the mind by a.synthesizing constituent parts of perceptions. -Which of the following is not consistent with the C. enables us to speculate further on the ideas of functionalism? relationship between body and mind. a. the study of the organism independent of its d. has no specific use, but is highly interesting environment from a psychological perspective. b. the study of mental processes - Associationism is a school of psychology, arising from Locke and Aristotle, that examines C. the study and uses of consciousness a. how ideas become associated with each d. the study of the relationship between the other in the mind. organism and its environment b. the process by which the thoughts of some - Lorraine was conducting an experiment in people associate with the thoughts of others. which she was eating an apple and was trying to analyze the experience. What technique was she C. how "nonreal" representative objects become using? associated with abstract "ideal" objects in the mind. a. in vivo D. observable associations between stimuli and b. introspection responses c. empiricism - This researcher examined the impact of d. naturalistic observation rehearsal on memory using himself as a subject. - A leader in guiding functionalism toward a. Tolman pragmatism was whose chief functional b. Dewey contribution to the field of psychology was his landmark book, Principles of Psychology. c. Kant a. John Dewey d. Ebbinghaus b. William James - The "law of effect" states that a stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if c. Edward Lee Thorndike the d. Hermann Ebbinghaus a. stimulus is conditioned. - ragmatism concerns itself most directly with b. organism is repeatedly rewarded for that the response. a. practicality of acquiring knowledge. C. organism is repeatedly punished for that b. degree to which knowledge is empirical. response. c. philosophical implications of knowledge d. stimulus and the response are both unconditioned. d. usefulness of knowledge. - The landmark experiment in which dogs - Of the following types of knowledge, a salivate at the sight of the person who feeds pragmatist would most likely support the study them provides an example of of knowledge that a. classically conditioned learning. a. exists for its own sake. b. instrumental learning. b. can be used to help people become better educated. c. social learning d. physiological psychology - How would someone determine whether there was a possibility of a problem in the function of a - Skinner's argument included the idea of patient's medulla oblongata? operant conditioning, which refers to his belief that a. The patient might be experiencing both short- term and long-term memory loss. a. the strengthening or weakening of behavior, depending upon the presence or absence of b. The patient might not be able to sense pain or reinforcement or punishment, explains all pressure. human behavior. c. The patient might display irregular aggression b. all human behavior can be explained by patterns. operant conditioning, involving the strengthening d. The patient might experience heartbeat or weakening of behavior, depending only on the irregularity and possible breathing problems presence of punishment. - Sonia lays in a hospital bed unable to wake up. c. human behavior is highly unpredictable and, Scans of her brain show damage to the which is as a result, only some human behavior can be important for regulating overall level of explained in terms of reinforcement-punishment consciousness/arousal. relationships. a. corpus callosum d. human behavior cannot be understood without taking into account the purpose of the b. white matter behavior. c. reticular activating system - John Watson, the founder of radical behaviorism, was an American psychologist who d. medulla oblongata a. rejected all aspects of functionalism. - The convolutions of the cerebral cortex comprise ___, which are small grooves; _____ b. supported the functionalist movement and which are raised areas or bulges; and, which are was one of its most ardent supporters. large grooves. c. rejected some aspects of functionalism, a. sulci; fissures; gyri but at the same time drew heavily from the functionalists. b. fissures; sulci; gyri d. altered the course of functionalism and later c. gyri; fissures; sulci renamed the movement "behaviorism." d. sulci; gyri; fissures - Which of the following is a legitimate criticism - The cerebral cortex is of Behaviorism? a. the main lobe of the forebrain. a. The behavioristic principles did not explain language learning well. b. the bridge between the left and the right hemispheres of the brain. b.The law of effect did not generalize to humans. c. a one- to three-millimeter-thick layer that C. Classical conditioning only works on animals. covers the surface of the brain. d. All of the above are legitimate criticisms. d. a layer, covering the surface of the brain, that QUIZ 2: comprises about 60% of the brain. - ___refers to transmission of information to the opposite side, whereas, ____refers to transmission to the same side. a. Contralateral; ipsilateral - Marc Dax noticed a relationship between the loss of speech and the side of the brain in which b. Occipital; frontal damage had occurred in patients suffering from c. Ipsilateral; contralateral a. prosopagnosia. d. Parietal; temporal b. aphasia. - Most motor information transmission is c. ablation a. parietal. d. schizophrenia. b. contralateral. - Paul Broca believed c. ipsilateral. a. that localization of function does not exist. d. occipital. b. the left hemisphere of the brain is critical to - The corpus callosum serves to normal speech function. a. make certain contralateral transmissions c. the right hemisphere of the brain is critical to ipsilateral normal speech function. b. regulate the transmission of information along d. neither hemisphere of the brain is critical to the cerebral cortex. normal speech function. C. allow transmission of information between - Karl Lashley concluded that localization of the left and right hemispheres. specific memories d. transmit information from the left and right a. can be demonstrated through the use of a hemispheres to the spinal cord. large variety of techniques. - There are two radio stations, one receiving b. can be demonstrated only by using incision. signals from the western hemisphere and one C. can be demonstrated only by using ablation. receiving signals from the eastern hemisphere. A cable connects the two stations so that signals d. cannot be demonstrated. sent out from one half of the world can be - This particular part of the left hemisphere of the transmitted to the other half. This cable is brain appears to contribute to language analogous to the brain's comprehension. a. corpus callosum. a. Dax's area b. cerebral cortex. b. Wernicke's area c. white matter. c. Lashley's area d. medulla oblongata. d. Broca's area - The two halves of the brain, which rely on the corpus callosum for communication, are called. - How would someone determine whether there a. cerebral hemispheres was a possibility of a problem in the function of a patient's medulla oblongata? b. lobes. a. The patient might be experiencing both short- c. contralateral. term and long-term memory loss. d. split brain. b. The patient might not be able to sense pain or pressure. c. The patient might display irregular aggression - These cells in the brain transmit electrical patterns. signals from one location to another in the nervous system. d. The patient might experience heartbeat irregularity and possible breathing problems a. Amygdala - The cerebral cortex is b. dopamine receptor a. the main lobe of the forebrain. c. metabolic b. the bridge between the left and the right d. neuron hemispheres of the brain. - The junction between terminal buttons of one c. a one- to three-millimeter-thick layer that neuron with the dendrites of other neurons. covers the surface of the brain. a. Synapse d. a layer, covering the surface of the brain, that b. Terminal button comprises about 60% of the brain. c. Nodes of ranvier - The cerebral cortex is often referred to as ____, whereas the nerve fibers of the brain's interior d. Synaptic terminal are often called - At the end of the branches of an axon are the a. contralateral; ipsilateral ______, which look like small knobs. b. gray matter; white matter a. terminal buttons c. ipsilateral; contralateral b. synapse d. white matter; gray matter c. nodes of ranvier - The corpus callosum serves to d. synaptic terminal a.make certain contralateral transmissions - Marcus has Alzheimer's and has a difficult time ipsilateral. with his memory. The doctors say that his memory difficulties in part are due to the low b. regulate the transmission of information along levels of ____. the cerebral cortex. a. Acetylcholine c. allow transmission of information between the left and right hemispheres. B. dopamine d. transmit information from the left and right c. dragonkin hemispheres to the spinal cord. d. serotonin - There are two radio stations, one receiving signals from the western hemisphere and one - This particular neurotransmitter is associated receiving signals from the eastern hemisphere. A with attention, reward and reinforcement, cable connects the two stations so that signals learning, and motivational processes. sent out from one half of the world can be a. Acetylcholine transmitted to the other half. This cable is analogous to the brain's b. dopamine a. corpus callosum. c. GABA b. cerebral cortex. d. serotonin c. white matter. d. medulla oblongata. -This particular neurotransmitter is important for d. Static Imaging Techniques regulating impulsivity and is associated with - This particular type of metabolic imaging eating behavior, and aggressive behavior. technique uses a radioactive form of glucose a. Acetylcholine "that emits positrons as it is metabolized" to look at the physiological functioning of the brain "in b. dopamine action." It monitors increase in blood flow to c. GABA particular parts of the brain. d. serotonin a. Electroencephalograms (EEGs) - Tan, a patient of Broca's who had severe b. Glucose Metabolism Tomography (GMT) speech problems, was capable of uttering only c. Positron emission tomography (PET) one syllable "Tan" (hence the name). After Tan's death, examination of his brain revealed a d. ERPs number of lesions in the frontal lobe. It was ascertained from this that parts of the frontal lobe are important for speech production. Gathering knowledge from someone about brain function after death with known difficulties would be an example of a. Broca's technique. b. Brain Capacity Functional Analysis. c. in vivo techniques. d. postmortem studies. - This static imaging technique uses a strong magnetic field to analyze "magnetic changes in the energy of the orbits of nuclear particles in the molecules of the body. " a. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) b. Brain Structure Enhancement (BSE) c. Electrical Recording Technique (ERT) d. Magnetic Recognition Enhancement (MRE) - These techniques take advantage of the brain's consumption of glucose or oxygen and specifically look for which part of the brain is most active "during more generalized processing." The active part of the brain would require more resources than inactive areas. a.Glucose Metabolism Tomography (GMT) b. Metabolic Imaging c. Electrical Recording Technique (ERT)